Abstract: The subject of this research is one aspect of the economic activity of the Armenian community in Russian Turkestan, namely, the development of the fishing and salt industries. The Armenian community in Central Asia was established following the entry of this region into the Russian Empire and, despite its small number of members, became very influential in the economic sphere there. The greater part of the Armenian population was concentrated in the Transcaspian region of the Turkestan territory and it was precisely there that they played a key role in the most diverse spheres of economic activity. The main methods of research applied in this research, apart from general scientific ones, are the historical-comparative, historical-typological and historical-systematic methods, which allow to study the economic activity of the Armenians in Central Asia in its evolution, while considering the multitude of factors that influenced it. On the basis of a wide range of sources, the article analyzes for the first time in scientific research the role of the Armenian community in the conception and formation of the fishing and salt industries in the Transcaspian regions of Russian Turkestan. Armenian industrialists and merchants organized in the Transcaspian region commercial fishing and a salt industry, which became a very profitable activity for the local population as well. Despite its small population, the Armenian community continued to play a key role in these industries up to the Russian Revolution.

Keywords: Central Asia, fishing cooperatives, salt industry, fishing companies, Russian Turkestan, Russian policy of Turkestan, Transcaspian region, fishing industry, Turkestanskiy krai, Armenian community of Turkestan

Abstract: This article is devoted to the confrontation between the Stalinist "revolution from above" and the "Bukharin alternative" through the prism of the functioning of the collective rule of the Bolshevik party. The subject of this research is the influence of the traditions and mechanisms of the collective rule on the intraparty struggle, as well as the evolution of the informal relations and balance of forces within the "steering group" of the Bolshevik party under the conditions of the intraparty struggle during the period from 1928 to early 1929. Understanding these aspects of the intraparty struggle is a necessary condition for obtaining a full answer to the questions of how real the "Bukharin alternative" was to Stalinism and how inevitable was the final destruction of the collective rule and the beginning of the formation of Stalin’s dictatorship? The methodological basis of the study is the historical-genetic method, which allows to reveal the cause-and-effect relations and regularities of the evolving confrontation between Stalin and "Bukharin’s group". The scientific novelty of this research lies in it presenting the issue of the intraparty struggle of the late 1920s with a new perspective and attracting new archival materials, fully revealing the essence of the informal ("shadow") side of the intraparty struggle. The author comes to the conclusion that the balance of forces that existed in the upper echelon of the Bolshevik party in 1928 conditioned the significant influence of the traditions and mechanisms of the collective rule on the intraparty struggle. In fact, the defeat of the "Bukharin alternative" and the final destruction of the collective rule became possible only after Stalin, taking advantage of the gross political mistake made by Bukharin, rallied around him the majority of the "steering group" of the party.

Keywords: collective rule, Politburo, revolution from above, Bukharin alternative, New Economic Policy, emergency methods of grain procurement, peasant uprisings, discussions, Bolshevik party, intraparty struggle

Abstract: The subject of this article is the 17th-20th-century sources containing biographical information on Wenhai Fuju (1685-1765), the seventh patriarch of the Qianhua school of Vinaya in China. The revival of the Vinaya school in China in the shape of the “Qianhua school” (“the Thousand Flowers School” or “the Mount Baohua school”) constituted the main change in the structure of Buddhist schools in China during the late Ming dynasty (1368-1644) and the Qing dynasty (1644-1912) as compared to the era of Yuan (1271-1368) and most of the Ming Dynasty. It was precisely Wenhai Fuju who strengthened the Qianhua school, which through his help began to claim to be the only proper school of Vinaya in China. All this motivates the interest in researching the figure of the seventh Qianhua patriarch. By means of researching the contents of sources and their authors, the sources are subdivided according to the chronology of their creation and the fullness of information concerning Wenhai Fuju they contain. The novelty of this article is that it reveals the main sources for conducting a biographical research on Wenhai Fuju based on the fullness and authenticity of their content. At the next stage of research the author offers a comparative analysis and critical review of these sources in order to construct an integral biographical account of the seventh Vinaya Qianhua patriarch.

Keywords: China, Buddhism, Vinaya, sources, genealogies, chronicles, Qing dynasty, Wenhai Fuju, Baohua, Qianhua

Abstract: The subject of this article is the transition from the Soviet regime to the modern political regime in the Republic of Kabardin-Balkaria, one of the North Caucasian subjects of the Federation. The purpose of this research is to verify the applicability of the complex model of transition from one political regime to the other in this particular case-study, where the transition is interpreted as an essential modification in the composition of both actors and institutions which regulate their relations. The structure of the narrative is constructed in correlation with the sequence of the regime transformation phases. It begins with the phase of the crisis and consequent collapse of the former regime, which entailed the disengagement of the elites, and concludes with the phase of consolidation of the post-Soviet political regime and the constitutional legalization of the modern system of the Republic's political institutions. The article's research methodology is based on the consideration of the particularities in the structure of societal and elite ruptures as an explanatory factor for the process and outcome of the post-Soviet transition. By the end of the Soviet period some structural pre-conditions for the successful democratization process had emerged in Kabardin-Balkaria, but the modernization processes were not completed. Hence, the base for the disengagement of the elite in the region was laid down by the factors of the general "ethnization" of social and political life. The main conclusion derived from this research is that the transformation of the political regime in Kabardin-Balkaria in the 1990s can be considered not as a "transition to democracy", but as an "open-ended transition". Typologically it belongs to the cases of "cartel agreements" of elite groups with the old party-state nomenclature as the dominant actor and the prevalence of informal regulating mechanism of intra-elite relations.

Keywords: North Caucasus, Republic of Kabardin-Balkar, 1990s, post-Soviet transition, elites, political institutions, political regime, democracy, transitology, ethnopolitics

Abstract: The article analyses the political reasons that motivated the great Roman orator M. Tullius Cicero to pronounce one of his most famous speeches – "For Archias". This brilliant panegyric to science and education to a great extent hides the aims that Cicero pursued, who was then at a crossroad. The article's author examines the political situation in 62 B.C.E. (after the suppression of the Catilinarian conspiracy and on the eve of Pompey's return), as well as attempts to reconstruct the logic behind the orator's decisions. In addition to the text of the speech "For Archais" itself, the study uses numerous testimonies of other Ancient authors and later Scholasticism. This article is the first work in Russian language to study in any detail the trial of the Greek poet – the defendant of M. Tullius. On the basis of collected detailed information regarding the work of Archias, the author deduces Cicero's bigger plans of collaborating with him. The author of the article proves that in the resulting situation the defendant's acquittal was predetermined; but what was more important to the great orator was the aim to strengthen his relation with the senate-controlling group, while not entering in direct conflict with G. Pompey.

Keywords: Cicero, Archias, Lucullus, Late Roman Republic, nobility, Ancient literature, Ancient poetry, oratory, political struggle, judicial trial

Abstract: The subject of this research is the interpretation of the issue of lobbying that was developed in the United States of America in the 1950s. Lobbyism is a complex, multi-faceted phenomenon that has been a part of the field of politics for a long time. The regulation of lobbying activities under the President Dwight Eisenhower is a little-studied topic in both Russian and foreign historiographies. According to the author, the American experience of regulating lobbyism through the formation of a competitive political environment and the transparency of the procedure of government decision-making can be relevant for Russian lawmaking today. The complex analysis of the central issues in the socio-political life in the 1950s demonstrates that in the liberal political circles of that time began to ripen plans for strengthening government regulation of lobbying, changing the "landscape" of lobbying groups and creating under government patronage new conditions for the establishment of lobbyists of public interest which are capable of maintaing a course directed at social reforms. The author comes to the conclusion that the given initiatives of the liberals were a response to the growing corruption links between businesses and the government and a means of mobilizing forces in order to sustain a liberal ideology. The article cites previously unused in Russian historiography documents from the United States Congressional Special Committee regarding the activities of the oil and gas lobby (1956).

Keywords: US Supreme Court, Dwight Eisenhower, liberalism, conservatism, oil and gas industry, business, government, society, corruption, lobbying

Abstract: The article is devoted to the study of the interactions between the Bolsheviks and Left Socialist-Revolutionaries in local soviets (councils) in the spring and summer of 1918. The subject of the article is the conflicts and clashes of the representatives of the two parties in the executive committees of Soviets at various levels. The investigation of these events is important for understanding the specifics of the Soviet state-political system in the first half of 1918, when the predominance of representatives of the Bolsheviks and the Left SRs in the Soviets and their influence allow us to speak of an unfolding two-party system in a number of provinces in Central Russia. In the article, on the basis of an analysis of a variety of archival documents and published material, the conflicts and their consequences on the existence of the two-party system within the executive committees of provincial and district Soviets are examined. The study of the interactions of the Bolsheviks and the Left Socialist-Revolutionaries implies the application of the basic methods and principles of historical research: historical-genetic, historical-typological methods, as well as the principles of historicism and objectivity. The novelty of the study consists of examining the practices of joint state activity of the Bolsheviks and Left SRs, as well as in defining the types of their conflicts. The author comes to the conclusion that the conflicts between the Bolsheviks and the Left Socialist-Revolutionaries were an important feature of the two-party system, since they allowed representatives of both parties to openly express their positions on internal political issues and make compromise decisions, all of which led to a certain balance of interests between the Bolsheviks and the Left SRs at the regional level. Ultimately, however, the increase in the number of conflicts between the Bolsheviks and the Left SRs contributed to the collapse of the Soviet two-party system.

Keywords: revolution, two-party system, Soviets (councils), coalition, elections, food policy, political system, Soviet state, Bolsheviks, Left SRs

Abstract: The subject of this research is the political, cultural and public activity of Vincent Massey, the first Canadian General-Governor. The object of this research is the history of the Canadian political culture through the lens of the political and public activity of this particular historical figure. The study pays attention to the various aspects of his activity during the first half of the 20th century, especially during the formation and development of the Canadian political culture, the unified Canadian nation and the achievement of the country’s full sovereignty. The author highlights the particular role and the importance of Vincent Massey in the development of the Canadian statehood.The study was carried out by applying historical research methods and through the use of original texts from Canadian archival and historiographical sources. The novelty of this research lies in its approach of using the personality factor of the above-named historical figure for the analysis and study of its influence on the history of the formation of the Canadian political culture in the second half of the 19th century on the example of the political and public activity of J. A. Macdonald, the first prime-minister of Canada.

Keywords: Vincent Massey, Mackenzie King, Canadian political culture, Canadian liberal tradition, Liberal party of Canada, Royal Commission, Canada Council, Canadian nation, sovereignty, Canadian statehood

Abstract: In Russia during the first decade of the 20th century unfolded several church-reformation and liberal-reformist movements, directed at reforming the church. In these movements were involved the religious, ecclesiastical and outside of the church intelligentsia, educated workers, as well as clergymen. The problems put forward by this eclectic social movement, apart from various proposals of religious and philosophical nature and the question of "reform or reformation?", included also requests defined by the era. The participants of the movement hoped that at the church council all their proposals would receive a positive decision. But the majority of their proposals were in conflict with the Orthodox tradition. The article's author examines which questions raised by the movement as a whole were among those discussed at the church Local Council of the Russian Orthodox Church in 1917–1918 and presents the resolutions made by this legislative church body. The author applied the method of systematic historical analysis, which takes into account the causal relationship between events and the objective approach to events and documents. The author also used the retrospective approach. The scientific novelty of this study is determined by the fact that in the article the liberal religious movement is for the first time presented in the context of the events from the canonical sphere – the work of the Local Council of the Russian Orthodox Church in 1917–1918. The author refutes the existing opinion that the reformatory activity of the religious intelligentsia and the liberal clergy in the beginning of the 20th century was left without attention by the Local Council of the Russian Orthodox Church in 1917–1918. The author analyzes the discussions between the liberals and the conservatives. The author based his study on the material of his ten-year research on the formation in pre-Revolutionary Russia of the social movement for church reform, the analysis of the church reformer K. M. Aggeev and a review of the documents ("Deeds") of the Local Council of the Russian Orthodox Church in 1917–1918.

Keywords: religious intelligentsia, church reformation, church movement, historical Church, liturgical work, reform, social movement, live sermon, Church council, Local Council

Abstract: On the basis of reintroduced archival and documentary sources, the article examines the history of the adoption of Islam by the mountaineers of the Northwest Caucasus. Special attention is given to exploring the stages of the Islamization of the area associated with the external and internal political situation of the time. It is proved that the spread and strengthening of Islam in the region was due to the missionary activities of foreign (Arabic, Turkish, Persian) and ethnic (Northern Caucasian) preachers, who personified the political situation and the ideological requirements of the period. The methods used to achieve this vary from promises of material benefits to forced repressions. The methodology of this work is presented by the philosophical terms regarding the correlation of social development and policy, the historical and social situation of missionary work, the dialectics of the general and specific.The author comes to the conclusions that the existing in Caucasian studies term of the "crash" of missionary work can be considered unreasonable. During the specified period in the North-Western part of the Caucasus occurred the process of penetration and adaptation of the Islamic faith, preached by the missionaries. Despite the fact that the emissaries in the region pursued different goals, the activities of Muslim preachers had contributed to the mobilization and consolidation of the forces of the mountain peoples. As a result, by the time of the bourgeois reforms, the majority of the Circassians made their choice in favor of Islam, which in their minds began to take the main position.

Keywords: Russian Empire, Northern Caucasus, Circassian peoples, foreign emissaries, missionary organizations, Islamization of the region, political history, social and cultural life, advocates of Islam, stages of missionary work

Abstract: The subject of this article is the development of sinology within the walls of the Communist University of the Toilers of the East (CUTE). The author pays particular attention to the scientific works on Chinese history and society, written by the faculty of CUTE during 1921-1939. The author notes that before 1927 China was only an example for proving the "universal truth" of Marxism, and only after 1927 the university started sinological studies in the full sense of the term. At the end of the article, the author examines the influence of the scientific heritage of CUTE on the historiography of the history of China. The research method of this study is the historical-descriptive one. The author describes the little-studied historical facts on the basis of declassified archival material. The scientific novelty of this article lies in the complex analysis of the sinological work of CUTE, conducted on the basis of a wide-ranging quantity of sources, including some archival material for the first time introduced to scientific use. Relying on the analysis of various scientific works by sinologists, the author comes to the conclusion that sinological activity not only had great influence on Soviet Eastern Studies but also became one of the most important sources for Marxist historiography in China itself.

Keywords: Chinese history, faculty composition, course program, Marxism, social formation, ideological struggle, party history, Soviet sinology, Chinese historical scholarship, CUTE

Abstract: The subject of this research is the process of understanding the problem of labor efficiency in the Soviet industry in the 1920s as developed in the pages of specialized economic journals of that time. The issue of the New Economic Policy's crisis is considered in the article through the prism of the current analytical work of the leading economist of that period with regard to the main issues of industrial production – the growth of labor production and the role in this of wages and labor discipline. In addition, the author examines not only the analytical work of the economists-Trudoviks itself, but also the social-historical context that determined its horizon and depth. The article applies the methodology of the historiographical analysis with relation to the contradictory unification of the two sides of the object of this research: the development of social practices and its introspective reflection on the conceptual level. The main conclusions of the conducted research are the following theses. The works of A. M. Ginzburg, V. G. Groman, B. A. Gukhman, A. I. Rabinovich, S. G. Strumilin, A. B. Khalatov and others reflect the nodal questions concerning the issue of labor efficiency in the industry of that period. These are questions regarding the stimulating role of wages, he intensification of labor, the prospects of production rationalization, the establishment of labor discipline and others. The leading economists-Trudoviks of that time were clearly aware of the structural limits for the radical growth of labor productivity: technical, institutional and historical. Of course, with such an outlook the prospects of labor efficiency were becoming more grounded, which could not arrange the higher political leadership under the conditions of the folding of the New Economic Policy. From then on it was necessary to follow a clear strategic line founded on unconditional political loyalty, but these requirements could not be met by many of the authors writing for journal periodicals in the 1920s.

Keywords: New Economic Policy, labour productivity, production rationalization, wage scale, labor discipline, economists-Trudoviks, wartime rationing, scientific labor management, wages, journal periodicals

Abstract: The article is devoted to the analysis of the publications in the journal «the Herald of Europe» regarding the financial policy of Russia undertaken by the ministry of N. K. Bunge. The aim of this study is to reveal the perception of the liberal publication on the activity of the ministry of finances during the period of the second half of the 1880s. The author analyzes separate articles on this specific topic, as well as publications from the permanent sections "From the social chronicle" and "Internal review". In the indicated period this journal occupied one of the leading positons in the social movement in Russia, including in its liberal wing. In writing this article the author used the following scientific methods: historical-comparative, descriptive, historicism. The methodological basis of this article is the publications of V. A. Kitaev, A. A. Alafaev, V. L. Stepanov. The author comes to the conclusion that the liberals were far from idealizing the activity of the above-mentioned politician, criticizing the events concerning the drinking issue and the stabilization of the national currency, and protectionist measures. However, the publicists of «the Herald of Europe» were very impressed by Bunge's desire to strengthen the state's participation in the country’s social and economic sphere. Carrying out the idea of the authorities' responsibility in the field of finances and economy, «the Herald of Europe» departed from classical liberalism towards its social invariant. The study's novelty lies in that it conducts for the first time an analysis of relations of one of the leaders of liberalism in Russia in the second half of the 19th century to the liberally-minded politician N. K. Bunge. The examination of this issue, undoubtedly, will enrich our understanding of the nature of the relationship between the authorities and society during the last quarter of the 19th century and the nature of liberalism in Russia. The article is aimed for the community of scholars on the history of public though in Russia.

Keywords: power, Bunge, finances, history, history of Russia, budget deficit, Arseniev, Stasyulevich, opposition, liberalism

Abstract: The subject of this research is the monastic economy. The article examines on a micro level, on the example of one monastery in the Moscow region – the Voznesenskaya Davidova Poustinia, the development of the monastic economy during more than four centuries. The research object of this article is the description of the key aspects of the economic activity of the named monastery, more precisely: agriculture, cattle breeding, as well as those spheres that were dictated by the new economic conditions, for example, obtaining income from capital, such as through investments in Russian banks and renting out houses belonging to the monastery, and others. This study is based on archival material, found by the author in two archives, which concern the economic activity of the monastery: in the Russian State Archive of Ancient Acts and in the Central State Archives of Moscow. Through the method of historical reconstruction, the article examines the economic activity of the monks and priors of the Voznesenskaya Davidova Poustinia from 1515 to 1917, that is, for more than four centuries. Today there are scientific studies on the activity of Russian monasteries that describe the economy in general. In this article, however, the author turns to the micro level and on the example of one monastery in the Moscow region, the Voznesenskaya Davidova Poustinia, analyzed the development of the monastic economy, specifically, its formation. The main conclusions of this study are: having investigated the example of one monastery in the Moscow region (the Voznesenskaya Davidova Poustinia) the history of the formation of the monastic economy, and having traced the economic, trade and financial activity of the monastery from the 16th century to the beginning of the 20th century, the author shows that beginning with state grants the monastery became a rich, self-sufficient religious structure, where they competently combined monastic toil with the work of hired workers and where existed the right balance between various forms of economy and economic possibilities of the Russian Empire (placing capital in Russian banks, renting out their property, etc.). These forms of monastic income are considered by the author to be directly tied to the entrepreneurial activity of the Russian Orthodox churches.

Keywords: Voznesenskaya Davidova Poustinia, Orthodoxy, peasants, brick factory, mill, monks, bank, Russia, economy, monastery