Abstract: The article focuses on language conflicts in Switzerland, the main factors behind them and how they were resolved. Despite having four official languages, Switzerland is comprised mainly of territories with one official language with only a small number of bilingual cantons and communes. The main conflicts occurred between the French- and German-speaking populations, but the article also examines the situation concerning the Italian and Romansh languages. By analyzing the term Röstigraben, the Franco-German conflicts in the cantons of Bern, Jura, Fribourg and Valais, as well as the Italian and Romansh parts of Switzerland’s linguistic diversity, the author has singled out the common characteristics of these conflicts and the principal means of their resolutions. The conclusions are the following: the language conflicts in Switzerland always had political or socio-economic reasons. Among the resolutions implemented, the most significant are the referendums for self-determination, the quotas of representation prescribed by the law, the principle of territoriality, and federal subsidies. A leading role was played by the self-identification of the Swiss as citizens of a multi-lingual state, including the constant support of the Italian and Romansh languages. The article’s novelty lies in its comprehensive description and analysis of the history and modern state of Switzerland's linguistic diversity on the federal and cantonal levels.

Keywords: language policy, language legislation, Switzerland, minorities, language law, cantons, polylingualism, principle of territoriality, language conflicts, multilingualism

Abstract: The article concerns the theater practices of provincial tourists in Saint Petersburg and Moscow at the end of the 19th – beginning of the 20th centuries. With the development of mass tourism, the capital cities developed a range of tourist attractions, which every tourist was supposed to partake in. To these tourists it was no less important to familiarize themselves with the daily life of the city during their trip. In this regard, the city’s theater was particularly appealing to the provincial tourists, and going to different theaters became one of the most important practices during the whole of the visitor's trip to the city. Turning to the study of these practices is particularly relevant in light of the scholars’ growing interest in the history of daily life and recreation, as well as the development of historical anthropology, where studies focus directly on the participants of historical processes. The aim of this article is to analyze the capital cities' theaters in the context of tourist practices at the turn of the 19th – 20th centuries. Basing the methdology on Bourdieu's theory of the social world, the author concludes that the theater practices of the tourists in the capital cities were of crucial importance for the social significance of their trip. From the tourists' point of view, theaters had a double function: on the one hand, the performances on the capitals’ stages were interesting for the tourists as a bright display of artistic life, on  the other hand, the very theater buildings were appealing to the tourists as they were often an example of the latest achievements in architecture. Visiting a theater was included in the program of a tourist's trip to the capital, even if the tourist had only one day to see the city. Visiting the theatres  along with other activities during the course of tourist trips increased the cultural asset of the provincial tourists back in their hometowns and allowed them to say that they not only visited the capitals, but also partook in the big city life.    

Keywords: history of tourism, history of daily life, theatre, tourists, capital, guide, cultural practices, city, travel, excursion

Abstract: The article examines the basic concepts of the modernization development types proposed by Russian scientists. The revealed reasons for the Russian historians’ heightened interest in the question of modernization typology is tied to the necessity of changing the leading scientific methodology after the dissolution  of the USSR and the elaboration of a political development strategy for the Russian Federation at the beginning of the 21st century. The author notes that most Russian studies propose a  dichotomy of typology in the modernization processes: organic and overhauling modernizations. The author then gives a description of each of these types, taking into account the peculiarities of the basic points of view regarding the stated topic. At the base of the research methodology of this work lies the classical interpretation of the concept of modernization (the transition from traditional society to the modern one) as a more acceptable one for historical analysis. The author comes to the conclusion that the main criteria for differentiating the organic and overhauling modernizations are the internal/external impulses and synchronic/asynchronic processes in various spheres of public life. The author presents his own view on the classical and overhauling types of modernization, which is based on the complex approach to scientific research. This allows to identify the particularities of the indicated types through the following criteria: nature, original sphere of social activity, leading actors, mechanisms and rates of development.

Keywords: methodology, typology, organic modernization, overhaul modernization, internal impulse, process synchronization, inorganic, complex approach, development mechanism, development rates

Abstract: The article is focused on the ceremonial practices at the French Renaissance court during the 16th century, which included festive and ordinary activities, involving and often organized by the Queen of France and her court. The ceremonies and the etiquette of the Queen's court, which found expression in specific and obligatory daily activities of the royal persona and the members of her court, remains a little-studied field of study and hence does not allow to make conclusions regarding the real functional role of the noble ladies court. The research is based on the evidence of contemporaries – direct participants in the court life during the epoch of the last Valois – Marguerite de Valois and Pierre de Brantôme, as well as the analysis of a manuscript source (from the collection of the National Library of Russia in Saint-Petersburg) - the royal Regulations of the 1560-1580s, which established the organization and functioning of the court, but also regulated the rules of conduct and the ceremonial duties of the courtiers towards the reigning monarchs, in particular, the Queen of France. Using these sources the author demonstrates the independent organizational and political role of the Queen's household, which steadily increased with time. Considering the particularities of the French monarchy – such as the use of the Salic Law that barred women from succession to the throne, it nonetheless becomes apparent that the ceremonial of the Queen's court was a compensating beginning that became a means of political representation and public administration, highlighting the sacred status of the junior monarch and providing her with the grounds to actually intervene in the affairs of the state and to take over the management of the kingdom when necessary. The growing professionalization of the service to the Queen's household led to the complication and perfection of the ceremonial norms, as evidenced by a comparison of the Regulations from different years of publication and which received final legal consolidation in 1585, becoming the basis for further ceremonial and, consequently, political influence for the courts the French Queens during the following centuries.

Keywords: history of France, 15th-16th centuries, Valois dynasty, court ceremonial, Queen of France, Salic Law, Royal Regulations, court duties, daily ceremonies, noble ladies court

Abstract: The object of this research is the history of the Swedish populist parties during the second half of the 20th – beginning of the 21st centuries. The article examines the question of the origin of modern Swedish political populism, its place and role in the history of Sweden in the studied period. The author places the main focus of the issue of the genesis of the "Swedish Democrats" party as the leading populist political force in Sweden during the country's whole modern history, as well as the evolution of its ideology from the point of view of the influence it had on the popularity of the party. In the article the author uses the narrative (descriptive-narrative), as well as historical-genetic methods. Additionally, while conducting the research the author relies on the theory of "reputational shields" of E. Ivarsflaten. The author comes to the conclusion that in the history of Sweden populist parties for a long time did not play a noticeable role, because they positioned themselves as radical and outside-of-the-system political forces. The scientific novelty of the article lies in its revelation of a direct correlation between the rise in popularity of populist parties in Sweden and having at their disposal "reputational shields". Thus, the author proves that with Mikael Jansson at the head of the "Swedish Democrats" party, the consecutive course in the management of this party was an image and ideological modernization, begun in 1995-1996, which laid the foundation for the establishment of the party's "reputational shield" that became in the future one of the determining factors in the rise in popularity of this political force.

Keywords: National Socialism, political populism, populist parties, Swedish Progress Party, New Democracy, Sweden Democrats, Mikael Jansson, Jimmie Åkesson, National Democrats, History of Sweden

Abstract: The subject of this article is the jubilee of the History Department of Lomonosov Moscow State University. The chronological framework of this work is the beginning of the 21st century, that is, the jubilees of the 70th, 75th and 80th anniversaries of the History Department. The aim of this article is to examine how the study of these jubilees can aid the inquiry into the history of this department and of Moscow State University in general. The work’s methodology is constructed on the combination of three principles: historicism, scientific objectivity and systematism. The application of the principle of historicism allows to implant the analysis of the subject into its historical context. The principle of objectivity ensures the application to this study of a wide range of sources and the critical assessment of the facts contained within these sources. The principle of systematism offers the possibility of constructing the history of the department in all of its complete parameters of evaluation, which stem from the analysis of the jubilees. The article’s scientific novelty lies in the very formulation of the problem, as well as in that the acquired results allow to identify new aspects for studying the history of the department and university, trace their interrelation, determine the unobvious mutual influence of these aspects and factors on the history of the country as a whole. The article’s conclusion have not only scientific, but also a practical significance – they can be used in the process of teaching and in creating complexes for the memorialization of the department and university life. They also contain in themselves indications of other possible direction for the study of jubilees, including the indication of possible ways of searching and systematizing new sources on the history of the department and university.

Keywords: extracurricular activity, memoirs, studenthood, professorship, classic university textbook, Vestnik of Moscow University, historical education, jubilee, history department, Moscow University

Abstract: The article examines the first scientific-publicist encyclopedic work, written by P.-Ch. Leveque and titled "the History of the different peoples, subordinated to Russia", which describes the nationalities living in the Russian Empire during the 18th century. By studying the scientific legacy of P.-Ch. Leveque, as well as relying on the scientific data and publications of his contemporaries (G. F. Miller, A. F. Bushing and others), the authors were able to obtain precise and specific information regarding the ethno-cultural structure of the world's largest nation – the Russian Empire, during the studied period. The article uses the historical-systematic method, directed at the examination of the Russo-European cultural interaction during the 18th century, specifically, through the prism of the work of one of the brightest representatives of the Enlightenment – the scholar P.-Ch. Leveque. The authors of the research come to the conclusion that the "Encyclopedia" of P.-Ch. Leveque is the first work in the French language that presents a complete image of Russia as a multinational state. As a complement and extension of the multi-volume "the History of Russia" by Leveque, "the History of the different peoples, subordinated to Russia" allows to clarify and deepen our understanding of the origins of the Russian-European cultural and scientific cooperation.

Keywords: Pierre Charle Levesque, Enlightenment period, 18th century, encyclopedia, cultural interaction, multinational state, peoples of Russia, ethnography, Europe, Russia

Abstract: By the time of the adoption of the University Charter of 1884, only two universities in the Russian Empire had a precise system for carrying out graduation examinations: these were the Derptsky and Kiev (Saint Vladimir) universities, where students took exams in two terms – after the second and after the fourth year. But the Ministry of Public Education went even further in reforming the system of graduation exams: it cancelled all examinations and students became obligated to pass exams on all studied subjects at the end of each year. This was a drastic change in the procedure of having final exams in the natural sciences departments of the physics-mathematics faculties of the Russian Empire's universities. The article examines the process of cementing new procedures, which turned out to be to the dislike of university teachers due to the growing control on the part of the Ministry of Public Education. The article's research is based, above all, on the use of the comparative-historical method and is founded on the principles of historicism and objectivity. The author comes to the conclusion that the total control of the Ministry of Public Education, the growing influence of which was related to the disorders in high schools, led to the discontent towards the new procedures. Despite the regulation of the process of graduation examinations by the Ministry, each university developed its own methods, while the professors sought to bring back the old procedures – of having their faculty's examination as it had been during the time of the Charter of 1863. The growing discontent and the unfolding of the revolutionary situation in the country led to the simplification of the process of graduation examinations and the transfer of power to the university faculties in 1906. However, already in 1911 the Ministry went back to fully regulating and unifying the process of graduation examinations.

Keywords: Russian Empire, natural science departments, physics-mathematics faculties, University Charter, Ministry of Public Education, diploma, subject system of education, education reforms, state regulation, graduation examinations

Abstract: The author analyzes the interactions between the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Russia and the Federal Assembly of the Russian Federation in the modern era. At the same time, the author gives attention to a retrospective look on the relations between the Ministry of Foreign Affairs and the deputies. In particular, the author examines the role of the foreign affairs departments of the Russian Empire during the period of the First World War. From the first days of the war the Ministry offered practical help to a significant number of fellow citizens caught abroad by the war. On the most pressing issues, such as help to prisoners of war, Russian diplomats had to overcome serious obstacles within the country. In these questions the ally of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs was the Russian State Duma. The study's main methodology are such methods as the comparative analysis, generalization, induction and deduction, historical method and others. In the conclusion the author comes to the following deductions. As in the previous years, the issue of the cooperation with the Federal Assembly sit at the center of attention of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. However, with passing years, the priorities in this area of activity changed. Today in the series of the most pressing issues is the joint action of diplomats and deputies in securing human rights through their role in the UN Human Rights Council, the convention bodies of the UN on human rights and the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights.

Keywords: prisoners of war, political émigrés, humanitarian cooperation, foreign policy, State Duma, multilateral diplomacy, internal policy, Ministry of Foreign Affairs, February Revolution, First World War

Abstract: The article explores the editions published in Germany in 1920-1930, devoted to the history and culture of Russia and the Russian emigration: scientific literature, philosophy, history and art history studies, works of cultural content, literary and artistic publications, and journalism. The author examines the nature of this material, the names of the authors, the topics of the works and their content. The subject of this research is how the Russian émigrés and Russia are reflected in German publications in the period between the two great wars of the 20th century. The object of this research is the German publications on Russian history and culture of the previous century. The author analyzes the role of these publications in the development of German-Russian cultural relations and the establishment of the so-called "dialogue of civilizations". The article presents the conclusion that in the interwar period of the first half of the 20th century, Germany became the largest center for the study of the Russian presence in Europe, which was due to historical, political and cultural reasons, and the conviction that "... Russians can tell us incredibly much."

Keywords: history, culture, Russia, USSR, Germany, revolution, emigration, Russian diaspora, dialogue of civilizations, cultural heritage

Abstract: The subject of this article is the mobilization experience of Tula's military industry in the years preceding the beginning of the Great Patriotic War. The article traces how under the conditions of an exacerbated worker deficit, following the repression of 1937, the military factories in the city of Tula solved the key question of the time – the preparation for the upcoming war with Fascist Germany. In particular, the author analyzes in detail the experience of conducting such important pre-wartime campaigns as the urgent technological upgrade of production, the reevaluation towards the increase of the production norms, the introduction of criminal responsibility for violating labor discipline, and the solution to the problems of labor deficit through the means of moving multi-machinists and combining professions. Based on the methodology of social history, as well as the provisions of the theory of modernization, the author for the first time examines the work of the Tula military factories during the cited period, in a complex manner and in a single topic field. The article's author comes to the conclusion that despite the serious social-economic difficulties, in the years of the third five-year plan in the Tula military factories as a whole worked capable collectives, which were able to modernize the military production and to execute intensive government assignments. In the first place, a significant part of the labor collectives at military factories in Tula were composed of experienced highly qualified workers. Secondly, the administration of these enterprises during the years of the first five-year plans accumulated not only a unique experience of remolding "raw" masses into qualified labor force, but also the experience of non-standard solution to technical problems. And thirdly, it is impossible not to consider the mobilizational charge of the growing military threat that stood against the growth of deviating behavior at the guild level. The research results can be used in preparing specialists in the field of management in the context of understanding the phenomenon of national economy through the lens of social practices, specifically, management experience under critical conditions.

Keywords: Tula Mechanical Engineer Factory, Tula Cartridge Factory, Tula Weapons Factory, labor discipline, third five-year plan, Stakhanovite Movement, Tokarev Self-loading Rifle, rationing, multi-machinist movement, military industry

Abstract: The subject of this article is the historical role of the scientific community in the study and development of the northern territories of Russia. The object of this research is the scientific biography of the first Soviet woman-geologist – doctor of geological-mineralogical sciences V.A. Varsanofyeva. The author examines in detail such aspects as the role of V. A. Varsanofyeva in the history of the geological exploration of this vast, remote and poorly known territory in the south of the Timan-Pechora oil and gas province, in the study of the geological structure and mineral resources of the Komi ASSR. Particular attention is paid to the scientific, pedagogical, social and popularization activities of V. A. Varsanofyeva during her years of work in the Komi branch of the USSR Academy of Sciences in 1954-1970, to the analysis of the documents preserved in her personal files at the Scientific Archive of the Komi Science Center of the Ural Division of the Russian Academy of Sciences; to the contribution of this scientist to the development of the topic of the study of the Komi ASSR productive forces. The methodological base of the study comprises the basic principles of modern historical sciences: historicism and scientific objectivity, and also general scientific methods of analysis and synthesis, description and construction of similarities. The scientific biography of the scholar-geologist V. A. Varsanofyeva is considered in the context of the contribution of the scientific community to the study and development of the northern territories of Russia. The author conducts an analysis of the vast document corpus from the scientist's private archive, which reflects her scientific, educational and social activity. The main conclusions of the study are the following: V. A. Varsanofyeva’s scientific activity, which lasted more than 60 years, is a milestone in the history of the geological exploration of this vast, remote and little-known territory; she laid the foundation for the research of the geological structure of the south of the Timan-Pechora oil and gas province. The industrial development of the Republic of Komi is largely due to the success of geologists' work, among them that of V. A. Varsanofyeva rightfully occupies one of the first places. The materials from V. A.Varsanofyeva's personal archive are of great interest, as they allow us to learn not only the versatile activity of this scientist, her social circle and personal traits, but also the scientific community as a whole – the tireless workers of science, inspired by the great aims of understanding the surrounding environment and gaining new knowledge.

Keywords: Varsanofyeva Vera Aleksandrovna, geologist, scientific community, geomorphology and tectonics, minerals, Pechora-Ilych Nature Reserve, Timan-Pechora province, personal archive, Pavlov Aleksei Petrovich, Chernov Aleksandr Aleksandrovich

Abstract: The article's research subject is the life course and becoming of the Russian orientalist Sergey Stefanovich Shchevelev, one of the leading specialists in the field of study of the history of the Near-Eastern conflict. Combining in himself a scholar-orientalist and a professor, for many years, teaching the history of the countries of Asia and Africa, Shchevelev with great ability adapted complicated material, while not simplifying it. Under his direction a series of specialists was raised, who are united by their general scientific school of Eastern studies which was formed by the celebrated scholar. Being reserved by nature and without ambitions of popularity, Sergey Stefanovich – a prolific scholar – author of more than 150 publications, including 9 monographs and 10 schoolbooks. The methodological foundation of this article is the systematic approach to scientific research, the principles of personal history with a basis of institutionalized, historical-genetic, socio-psychological and comparative methods. The article's novelty lies in the fact that its collective of authors for the first time in Russian sciences undertook a complex attempt to present the main development stages of the named specialist and the creative journey of the teacher S. S. Shchevelev, giving a short description of his main studies to aid scholars-orientalists. By revealing the multifaceted contribution of Sergey Stefanovich in the historical study of the question of Palestine and the Near East, in conjunction with his pedagogical mastery as a teacher, the article’s authors congratulate the scholar on his birthday and wish him further success in his scientific endeavors.

Keywords: Oriental Studies, Sergei Shchevelev, Middle East, Palestine, Israel, Arab-Israeli conflict, teacher, Afghanistan, Vitaliy Naumkin, Asia and Africa