Abstract: The article examines the post station society of northwestern Siberia from the late 17th to the early 19th centuries, which is due to the insufficient study in contemporary historiography of the specifics of the organization and service of postmen in the border territories of the Russian state. The purpose of the study is to trace the formation and development of the post service in northwestern Siberia (17th to early 19th centuries). The objectives of the research are to study the mechanisms of organizing post settlements; identify the peculiarities of placing postmen along transport routes; determine the structure of postmen's activities; and demonstrate the features of transportation in northwestern Siberia. The object of the study is the system of post service as an element of the transport infrastructure of northwestern Siberia (17th to early 19th centuries). The subject of the research is the social organization, economic activity, and interaction of carriers with state institutions. Methodology : the complex application of historical-genetic, comparative-historical, structural-functional, and statistical methods allowed for a comprehensive reconstruction of the process of formation and development of the post service in northwestern Siberia, revealing the peculiarities of organizing post settlements, analyzing the socio-economic status of postmen, and determining their role in the formation of the transport system of this remote area. The novelty of the work lies in the comprehensive study of the specifics of the organization of the post service on the outskirts of the Russian state, highlighting the peculiarities of managing carriers locally, taking into account natural-climatic and landscape features, and analyzing the post service's practices. During the study, stages of the formation of the post service in the Ob North were sequentially identified, based on which the geography of the settlement of postmen was characterized, and the types of their activities were systematized, establishing the key role of the Demyan and Samara postmen in the development of the transport system in the Ob North. An important contribution of the study is the revelation of the mechanisms of integrating Siberia into the social and economic space of the Russian Empire through the transport system. The research demonstrated the interconnection between the evolution of state management and the transformation of the post service. The fact that the economic activity of the post society in the Ob North was multi-faceted is of particular significance, as the postmen represented a unique socio-professional group that combined the functions of state carriers with conducting their own households.

Keywords: driver, post-horse racing, postal racing, Ob North, Demyan drivers, Samara drivers, travel expenses, transit money, transportation system, howl

Abstract: This article examines the evolution of A.M. Kollontai's political views and activities in the 1920s, following the defeat in 1921, at the 10th Congress of the RCP(b) of the Workers' Opposition, of which she was one of the leaders and ideologists. It demonstrates that after the 10th Congress, Kollontai did not immediately abandon her opposition views and continued to criticize the established party regime, which, she believed, was developing along an authoritarian-bureaucratic path. In 1922, she narrowly avoided expulsion from the party for her opposition activities, after that she decided to leave public politics and was appointed to a diplomatic post abroad. The article devotes particular attention to the events of 1923, when party authorities and political police learned of Kollontai's meetings with representatives of an illegal opposition organization, the "Workers Group of the RCP(b)," which emerged from the radical wing of the "Workers' Opposition." Based on the investigation into the case of the arrested members of this organization and Kollontai's testimony, the Central Control Commission of the RCP(b) concluded that she had to be punished, including removing her from high office. However, the Politburo, where J.V. Stalin oversaw Kollontai's case, chose not to make such a decision. An analysis of documents from the RGASPI, Kollontai's diary, and memoir sources suggests that compromising materials collected and held by the Politburo against Kollontai could have been used to pressure her into siding with the RCP(b) leadership in the intra-party struggle. After 1923, Kollontai not only ceased to oppose the party leaders but actually supported them in their struggle against the opposition. The article presents evidence that this support was not entirely sincere, but was rooted in both a sense of personal vulnerability and disillusionment with the struggle, recognizing the resistance’s lack of perspectives.

Keywords: A.M. Kollontai, J.V. Stalin, 1920s, Statement of 22, intra-party struggle, intra-party regime, proletariat, dissent, Workers' Opposition, Workers' Group

Abstract: The article traces the emergence and progressive refinement of what the author terms the subsidiary jurisdiction of international criminal courts: that is, their authority over matters which do not fall within the canonical catalogue of international crimes, yet are indispensable for safeguarding the proper functioning and procedural integrity of international criminal justice itself. It follows this institution from its tentative prefiguration in nineteenth‑ and early twentieth‑century projects of international criminal tribunals, through the jurisprudence of the post‑war military courts and subsequent ad hoc tribunals, to its eventual codification in Article 70 of the 1998 Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court. Methodologically, the study combines a historical‑legal approach – designed to reconstruct the chronological unfolding of the institution – with formal and comparative legal analysis of constitutive instruments, rules of procedure and case law of the relevant international bodies. Its originality lies in treating the development of jurisdiction over offences against the administration of international criminal justice not as a mere by‑product of the broader evolution of international criminal jurisdiction, but as an autonomous, structurally coherent historical‑legal process. By reconstructing the principal stages of this process and identifying the persistent patterns that emerge from them, the article suggests that the relevant norms have begun to transcend the confines of conventional treaty‑making, contributing to the crystallisation of a customary rule of international law requiring both states and international courts to respond to attacks upon the administration of international criminal justice.

Keywords: international criminal justice, subsidiary jurisdiction, International Criminal Court, offences against the administration of justice, contempt of court, ad hoc tribunals, customary international law, jurisdiction of international courts, liability regime, international crimes

Abstract: The article considers the Regulation on the General Directorate of the General Staff of the Russian Empire in 1913 as the main normative act regulating the formation and activities of this military administration body. The object of this research is the legal relations related to the process of organization, formation and functioning of the Main Directorate of the General Staff. The subject is the Regulation itself, prepared by the Military Council and approved by Emperor Nicholas II on March 17, 1913. The author examines in detail such aspects of the topic as the structure of the General Directorate, the rights, duties and powers of its main officials. Special attention is paid to the functional duties of the Chief of the General Staff, Quartermaster General, Chief of Military Communications, Chief of the Corps of Military Topographers, and Chief of the aeronautical unit. The tasks of the General Staff Committee as a strategic planning body are considered. To achieve the purpose of the work, the author used dialectical, historical-genetic, systemic and comparative legal methods combined with the principles of objectivity and historicism. The main conclusion of the conducted research is the recognition of the high level of legal regulation of the functioning of the Main Directorate of the General Staff. The regulation of 1913 ensured the well-coordinated work of all departments and units of the GUGS. It was actively involved in the development of measures for the construction of the land forces and preparation for military operations; operational, strategic and mobilization planning; military intelligence and counterintelligence; organization of transportation of troops and military cargo; military scientific and military topographic works; dissemination of military knowledge in military units; personnel and service of the General Staff. A special contribution of the author to the research of the topic is the consideration of the Regulations of 1913 as the fundamental normative act regulating the activities of the Main Directorate of the General Staff. The scientific novelty of the research lies both in the very formulation of the task of the work (a legal analysis of the 1913 Regulations, which had not been conducted before) and in the conclusions reached.

Keywords: The Ministry of War, Military law, General Staff, Quartermaster General, General Directorate of the GS, Chief of the General Staff, Emperor Nicholas II, Regulations on the GUGS, The Russian Imperial Army, The Russian Empire

Abstract: The subject of this study is the judicial oath as a legal, ritual, and communicative phenomenon within the system of proof of twelfth- and thirteenth-century Catalan customary law. The article analyzes its procedural status and evolution in the context of the transition from a predominantly oral legal culture to a written one. The research is based on a comparison of two key legal corpora—the Customs of Barcelona and the Customs of Tortosa—and makes it possible to trace changes in the law of evidence in medieval Catalonia. Particular attention is paid to the terminological differentiation of the concepts sacramentum, iuramentum, fer sagrament, and jurar, which reflect the distinction between the sacred essence of the oath and the process of its performance, as well as to their transformations in the legal language of the sources. The scope of the study also includes confessional differences in the procedures of oath-taking by Christians, Jews, and Muslims.The author analyzes the provisions of the Customs of Barcelona and the Customs of Tortosa, comparing formulations, terminology, and procedural contexts of references to the judicial oath in order to identify its functions and transformations in Catalan customary law. Normative descriptions of the judicial oath are also examined, making it possible to trace the evolution of conceptions of the oath as an instrument of proof in the legal culture of medieval Catalonia. The article presents a comprehensive analysis of the judicial oath in twelfth- and thirteenth-century Catalan customary law as a dynamic legal institution examined simultaneously in normative, procedural, linguistic, and confessional dimensions. For the first time in Russian medieval studies, a systematic comparison of the Customs of Barcelona and the Customs of Tortosa is carried out from the perspective of the evidentiary status of the oath and its evolution in the context of the reception of Roman law and the rationalization of judicial practice. It is shown that in the Customs of Barcelona the oath retained a close connection with archaic modes of establishing truth (ordeals, judicial combat, and good repute), whereas in the Customs of Tortosa it functioned as a procedural element embedded in a system of witness testimony and written record of proceedings. Therefore, the judicial oath is interpreted as an indicator of the transitional state of Catalan law from an oral-ritual model of proof to a text-oriented legal culture.

Keywords: judicial oath, customary law, Customs of Barcelona, Customs of Tortosa, history of Catalonia, medieval Catalonia, medieval law, legal culture of Catalonia, judicial evidence, medieval legal culture

Abstract: The subject of the study is the activities of Archippa, daughter of Dikaogenes in Kima of Aeolis, and her relations with the polis, which adopted eight decrees in her honor. On one hand, the expenses of Archippa on public buildings such as the bouleuterion, temple, porticoes, and banquets for all citizens of the city are examined; on the other hand, the honors granted to her by the polis, including statues of her and her father, permission to inscribe these decrees on a marble stele, granting her a place in the cemetery reserved for benefactors of the city after her death, and holding elaborate funerals that only the most deserving citizens received. An important question is about Archippa's marital status, as she manages her affairs independently, although traditionally, a guardian was expected to represent a woman's interests. The article analyzes eight decrees in the ancient Greek language from the city of Kima in honor of Archippa, employing a historical-comparative method to assess changes in the status of women compared to the classical era, considering scientific research on related topics. The scientific novelty lies in the author’s argument, unlike the opinions of other researchers, that there is no data in sources that would allow judgment on Archippa's marital status, and suggests adhering to inscriptions that do not mention her having guardians. The main conclusions of the study are: firstly, Archippa was such an influential woman that her status was indistinguishable from that of men; she managed her affairs and directly addressed requests to the authorities rather than through guardians. Secondly, Archippa’s wealth and generosity were so substantial that the authorities of the polis were willing to break traditions and bestow honors that were previously unavailable to women. Thirdly, during the Hellenistic period, wealthy women began to actively participate in the life of the polis, and their roles were no longer limited to childbearing and managing households. Fourthly, in the poleis, the importance of money and wealth increased, surpassing customs and even legal norms.

Keywords: Archippa, benefactor, boulevetery, gymnasiarch, sacrifice, honors, council, statue, philarch, temple.

Abstract: The subject of the study is the issue of changing the role of the president in the political system of the United States of America in the context of the socio-economic challenges of industrial modernization in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. The subject of the study is the activities of the country's 26th leader, Theodore Roosevelt (1901–1909), who, taking advantage of the nationwide demand for active government policy, carried out "square deal" reforms aimed at combating monopolies and weakening interclass contradictions. The author examines in detail such aspects of the topic as the use of presidential executive orders, as well as the relationship between the head of state and Congress and the judicial branch of government. Particular attention is paid to the study of the White House's personnel policy and its influence on the political course of the Republican administration. The purpose of the article is to analyze those practical steps of T. Roosevelt that contributed to the formation of the modern institution of the presidency. Public speeches and letters from the 26th President of the United States on domestic political issues were used as a source. The methods of historicism and objectivism were actively used in the study, and comparative and problem-chronological approaches were used to analyze the reforms of the "square deal" and identify patterns in individual executive orders. The novelty of the study lies in its examination of the key steps taken by the Roosevelt administration to expand the powers of the executive branch. It has been proven that the reforms of the "Square Deal," in particular the Elkins and Hepburn antitrust laws, the Employer Liability Act, and the use of labour arbitration, contributed to more active intervention by the federal government in socio-economic processes. Another important factor in the expansion of presidential powers was the transfer of officials to a civil service system free from party patronage. In addition, T. Roosevelt resolutely pursued an environmental policy, using the law on antiquities to create new reserves. Based on the results of the study, it was concluded that the period of T. Roosevelt's rule became significant for the evolution of the institution of the presidency. The main conclusion of the study is that Roosevelt's personal qualities, especially his desire to take active measures to support strong executive power, played a major role in promoting the "square deal" reforms and executive orders of the White House.

Keywords: Theodore Roosevelt, square deal, progressive era, institution of presidency, separation of powers system, US civil service, executive orders of US President, conservation of natural resources, trust-busting, labor arbitration

Abstract: This article examines the question of the origin of ancient peoples, according to ancient sources, who lived in the Caucasus, Asia Minor and the Northern Black Sea region, known from ancient sources as "Gargarei" and "Amazons". The purpose of the article is to show the connection of these peoples with the Hurrian–Urartian community and the peoples of the Nakh group - Ingush, Chechens and Batsbians – and the etymology of their names based on historiographical sources and other available data on the history and origin of the Gargarei and Amazons. The relevance of the research is determined by the fact that, despite the available work, among modern Orientalists the problem of the origin of the Gargarei and Amazons (which directly concerns the ancient history of the Caucasian peoples) is still an open question and, in the author's opinion, requires additional comprehensive research. In the study of this issue, the methodological basis is a systematic approach based on the consideration of the object as an integral complex of interrelated elements. In the course of the research, the author comes to the conclusion that the Gargarei and Amazons and their ethnonyms are associated with the Hurrians, the Urartians, the Khalibs and the name of the ancient country in the west of the Armenian Highlands called "Alze", as well as with the endoethnonym of Ingush "Gilgiai" and the name of the Ingush society "Ortskhoy". This, according to the author, explains why these peoples turned out to be neighbors in different regions of Asia Minor, the Black Sea region and the Caucasus. The scientific novelty is determined by the formulation of the problem, and also due to the fact that the author presents his point of view in the etymology of the names "Gargarei" and "Amazons", to a certain extent different from the vision of other Orientalists, focusing on the connection of Gargarei and Amazons with the Hurrian-Urartian world.

Keywords: Gargarei, The gargars, khorhoruni, The Hurrians, Amazon, alizones, alazons, Alze, manholes, ortskoi

Abstract: The article is devoted to the analysis of the inspection of military units of the Russian army by the military and naval minister of the Provisional Government, A. F. Kerensky, in May 1917, and the reflection of this event in the capital's periodical press. Based on a wide range of newspaper sources, it examines the characteristics of the representation of Kerensky’s activities, his speeches, gestures, and personal behavior, which acquired symbolic significance in publications and served as tools for the formation of the image of the "revolutionary leader" and the "people's minister." The use of Petrograd newspapers with various political orientations allows for the reconstruction of the spectrum of interpretations of the trip in the public space of revolutionary Russia. The focus is not so much on the factual side of Kerensky's visits to the troops as on the media's ways of shaping their political and symbolic meaning. Special attention is paid to the role of the press as an active participant in the political process, which did not limit itself to the recording of facts but deliberately constructed the meaning and emotional background of what was happening. Methodologically, the work is based on the principles of historicism, systemicity, and objectivity. Key tools included discourse analysis of newspaper texts, a comparative-historical method, as well as elements of an imagological approach. The scientific novelty of the article lies in revealing the mechanisms of the formation of Kerensky's cult of personality through the capital press and analyzing their impact on public opinion. It is shown that Kerensky's front-line voyage was consciously constructed as a large-scale agitation and propaganda action aimed at strengthening discipline in the army, mobilizing soldiers to continue the war, and simultaneously increasing the minister's personal political capital. The Petrograd press acted as a key intermediary between the authorities, the army, and the rear, shaping the image of Kerensky as the central figure upon whom the salvation of the front and the outcome of the war depended. The article also reveals the dissonance between the officially transmitted optimism and the real state of the army, reflected in some critical, ironic, or ambiguous reactions of the press. It concludes that Kerensky’s inspection of the front became an important stage in the process of forming his cult and simultaneously demonstrated the limitations of propaganda impact in the context of an escalating crisis of power. The analysis allows for a deeper understanding of the role of the periodic press in 1917 as an active participant in the political struggle and the formation of public consciousness during the revolutionary era.

Keywords: Kerensky, periodical press, newspapers, media, Petrograd, offensive, army, front, Minister of War, leader

Abstract: The Anglo-Russian expedition to Holland in 1799 is one of the least studied pages in Russian military history. This expedition is considered in modern historical literature as an operation that had no significance for Russia, it was not favourable to it. At the same time, the study of the reasons for the Russian Empire's participation in the Second Anti-French Coalition and in the Dutch expedition allows us to conclude that both foreign policy steps were a response to the situation in Europe at that time, and the participation of the Russian army in the Holland campaign was in the sense of Russia's participation in the studied armed conflict – the struggle of Russia and allies with revolutionary France. The author investigates the issue of preparation of Russia and England for the upcoming operation, as well as, on the basis of archival documents, memoirs of participants of the operation, works of domestic and foreign researchers, analyses the process of drawing up plans for the invasion and their military and political features. The study concluded that the organisers of the military campaign – the British top political and military leadership – used the process of drawing up and discussing invasion plans with their Russian allies, on the one hand, to mask the narrow state interests they pursued with the desire to solve coalition-wide problems. In addition, such joint activities should have fuelled the interest of Emperor Paul I in the operation, as Russian troops were needed for its implementation, who had absolutely no information about the number and actions of the English troops allied to them. In fact, the British not only did not take into account and did not consider Russian proposals, but also did not have a clear plan of warfare even at the time when the first allied troops landed in Holland.

Keywords: Dutch Expedition, Second Anti-French Coalition, Paul I, William Grenville, Captain Popham, Walcheren Island, Abercrombie, Pavlovsky, Zuider Zee, Suvorov

Abstract: The subject of the study is the civilian population and the urban environment of Peterhof during the period of the German-Fascist occupation (1941–1944). The focus is on the comprehensive impact of the occupation regime on the daily life, social interactions, and collective consciousness of the residents, examined through the mechanisms of physical terror, economic exploitation, and targeted genocide. The source base of the work consists of archival materials from the Extraordinary State Commission for the Investigation of the Crimes of the Occupants, introduced into scientific circulation for the first time in such a complete volume concerning Peterhof, as well as detailed acts of examination of the destruction, statistical data on demographic losses and material damage, and numerous witness testimonies from surviving residents. The methodological foundation of the research is built on an interdisciplinary approach. Principles of microhistory are applied for analysis, allowing large-scale historical processes to be revealed through the fates of individual people and families. A social-anthropological approach is used to reconstruct daily survival practices, adaptation strategies, and forms of resistance in extreme conditions. Cultural analysis aims to comprehend the phenomenon of the deliberate destruction of the symbolic "treasure of the nation" – the palace and park ensemble of Peterhof – and its consequences for the collective historical and cultural memory. The scientific novelty of the work lies in the first detailed application of the mentioned methods to the study of the occupation of Peterhof, which allows for the proposal of a new, more comprehensive interpretation of events. The practical significance of the research is related to its relevance in the contemporary context, where issues of protecting cultural heritage in conflict zones, understanding the nature of war crimes, and preserving historical memory while countering its falsification become especially important. As a result of the study, key factors influencing the occupation regime are identified and systematized. The tactics of physical terror, mechanisms of economic exploitation and administrative control, as well as the strategy of ideological suppression through the desecration of cultural and religious symbols are analyzed. It is demonstrated that the combination of these measures was aimed not merely at achieving military superiority, but at civilizational superiority, with the goal of demoralizing and deculturizing the local population. It is concluded that the result of the occupation for Peterhof was not just substantial material damage, but a profound social upheaval, manifesting in a demographic catastrophe, the disintegration of social ties, and the formation of collective trauma, the consequences of which were felt for decades thereafter.

Keywords: Peterhof, Great Patriotic War, Occupation, Everyday life, Mass consciousness, Genocide, Microhistory, Collective memory, Nazi invaders, Survival practices