Abstract: The article is devoted to the consideration of assessments of the foreign policy of the Russian Federation in the 1990s by domestic social democratic parties. The subject of the study is the publications of representatives of Russian Social Democrats, which reflect their views on the foreign policy of the Russian Federation during the period of Boris Yeltsin. The Social Democratic parties in the world and in Russia at that time influenced both the domestic and foreign policies of their states. The assessments of the social democratic parties in their programs and press reflect a wide range of views on the foreign policy of our state in the 1990s. Depending on the directions of the Social Democrats - left and right, their contradictions in views are displayed, which shows the breadth of social democratic thought at that time.  The study uses a historical and comparative method, a civilizational approach in analyzing the assessments of the positions of the right-wing social Democrats and a world-system analysis in analyzing the assessments of the positions of the left-wing social Democrats. The scientific novelty of the study consists in identifying the positions of the social democratic parties of the 1990s on the foreign policy course of the Russian Federation, and the different assessments of the country's foreign policy by left and right social Democrats. The study reveals differences in the assessments of social democratic parties and their priorities in the foreign policy of the Russian Federation, depending on their directions - the left social Democrats and the right social Democrats. The article evaluates the attitude of the parties to the official course of the authorities of the Russian Federation at that time, who advocated the country's close integration into the Western world. The conclusion is made about the role of social Democrats of different directions in constructing a new understanding of Russia's foreign policy, based on the ideological positions of the parties.

Keywords: Social Democratic Party of Russia, Right-wing social democrats, Left-wing social democrats, socialism, policy, evaluation of foreign policy, political parties of Russia, social democrats, foreign policy, Socialist Working People's Party

Abstract: The subject of the research is to study the experience of foreign experience in public administration in Russia at the beginning of the 18th century. An opportunity for this is provided by the information contained in the “Notes” of Ambassador Peter I A. A. Matveev. When conducting the research, methods of historical and textual analysis (semantic, terminological) were used in combination with the methodology of historical and situational analysis. The result of the study was conclusions about the degree of awareness of Ambassador Matveev about how governance was organized in France, as well as the objectivity of his assessments. It was revealed that Matveev paid maximum attention to the study of the system of higher government bodies in France, the personal and psychological characteristics of those who made decisions in this system. The author comes to the conclusion that Matveev’s information about how the administration of the French kingdom is structured could be useful in reforming public administration in Russia and, in particular, in creating the Senate and organizing its work.

Keywords: history of diplomacy, history of politics, history of managerial thought, Louis fourteenth, Peter the Great, diplomat Matveev, Russia eighteen century, history of public administration, Russian history, France eighteen century

Abstract: The subject of the study is the activities of the Rhine-Ruhr Service, a non–governmental organization created by Georg Klingenberg and Karl Kremer during the Ruhr crisis of 1923 to conduct propaganda abroad. The article analyzes documents from the funds of the Federal Archive of the Federal Republic of Germany related to the foundation, functioning and liquidation of this propaganda structure. The purpose of the study is to determine why the Rhine-Ruhr service ceased to exist by the end of 1923. Special attention is paid to the relationship between the State and the specified organization, as well as internal and external political circumstances that preceded its liquidation. The study revealed that due to fears of using propaganda in the interests of private circles, the government of Chancellor Wilhelm Kuno limited financial support for the Rhine-Ruhr service to strictly defined areas. Despite this, the activity of the organization went beyond the areas indicated by the state. The article shows that as the Ruhr crisis was resolved and the internal political crisis in Germany deepened, internal propaganda began to acquire greater importance for the government of the new Chancellor Gustav Stresemann. In this regard, only the most effective structures could continue further activities in the field of external propaganda. The result of the study is the conclusion that due to the lack of a unique niche in propaganda activities and extensive, stable ties in foreign countries, the Rhine-Ruhr service could not withstand competition with other organizations and was liquidated by the end of 1923.

Keywords: the enlightenment committee, Gustav Stresemann, Carl Cremer, Alfred Hugenberg, the Rhine-Ruhr service, Wilhelm Cuno, Georg Klingenberg, foreign propaganda, Ruhr Crisis, Weimar Germany

Abstract: The subject of the study is "Brief notes on the attitude of various Christian churches to the moment", compiled by Metropolitan of the Aleutians and North America, Exarch of the Russian Orthodox Church in North America Veniamin (Fedchenkov) on January 22, 1942. Analyzing their content, the author examines in detail the anti-Soviet activities of Catholics in the United States of America in 1933-1941, directed first against the establishment of diplomatic relations between the United States and the USSR, and then against the allocation of assistance to the Soviet Union to fight the Nazi invaders. The mentioned document has not yet been put into scientific circulation, although many of the thoughts and considerations of the mentioned church hierarch were used by the government of the USSR to develop its foreign policy course. The methodological basis of this work includes the principles of historicism, consistency and objectivity. The analysis of the "Brief Notes..." by Metropolitan Veniamin (Fedchenkov) in comparison with a wide range of other sources allowed us to build a logical chain of relations between the USSR and the USA in 1933-1941, in which the anti-Soviet activities of the Roman Catholic Church in the USA played a negative role. The study of the "Brief Notes..." by Metropolitan Veniamin (Fedchenkov) made it possible to assess not only the seriousness of the influence of the Catholic Church on the foreign policy of the United States of America and other European countries in 1933-1941 and to better understand the nature of the events that took place after the end of World War II, but also to comprehend the role of the Catholic Church in the political processes taking place in Ukraine today. In the "Brief Notes...", completed by 1942, Metropolitan Veniamin pointed out the religious origins of Ukrainian nationalism, the narratives of which have not changed since the time of the events under consideration. The Patriarchal exarch gave a surprisingly accurate description of the various movements of the Catholic Church in the United States, which, oddly enough, does not lose its relevance in current realities.

Keywords: The Ukrainian Greek Catholic Church, Ruthenian Greek Catholic Church, The Latin Church, Franklin Delano Roosevelt, USA, the Soviet Union, The United States of America, USSR, Metropolitan Veniamin Fedchenkov, Foreign policy

Abstract: The article is devoted to the comprehensive sociodemographic analysis of the local community of Iranian Islamists acting in Syria and Lebanon in the decade preceding the Islamic revolution of 1978-79. Thus far, history of everyday life and the multitudinous activities of the Iranian Islamic opposition in Syria and Lebanon in the 1970s has never become the principal subject of a historic research and has barely received attention from Western specialists in the history of the Islamic Revolution and modern Middle Eastern history, as well as from Iranian historians, scholars and researchers working in the field of the modern history of Iran. However, for a more comprehensive understanding of the Islamic Revolution, revolutionary processes and their logical premises and outcomes, it is highly necessary to carefully consider the sociodemographic characteristics of the active representatives of the Iranian opposition movement in the pre-revolutionary period namely in the 1970s. Throughout the comparative historical analysis of the reliable memories of longtime supporters of the Iranian Islamic movement acting in Syria and Lebanon, the fundamental sociodemographic characteristics of the active members of Iranian revolutionary movement abroad (e.g. gender, age, birthplace and place of living, educational and religious background, social marital status, etc.) are thoroughly highlighted, properly described and analyzed and their sociodemographic portrait is carefully created. The received sociohistorical data may properly serve as a valuable source on the social history of the Iranian society in the pre-revolutionary period, as well as on the complex history of Iranian revolutionary movement and the modern history of the Middle East region.

Keywords: Syria, Sociodemographic analysis, Palestine, The 20th Century, Islamic movement, Modern history, Middle East, Lebanon, Islamic Revolution, Iran

Abstract: The concept of "freedom" is one of the pillars for identifying ideas about the social ideal and one of the guidelines in attempts at social construction of the modern era. The object of this study is the political thought of Russia in the 18th century. The subject of the research is the formation and evolution of the concept of “freedom” in the socio-political texts of Russian authors of the 18th century. The purpose of this article was to identify the specifics of the concept of "freedom", presented in the texts of statesmen and politicians of the 18th century, in relation to the texts created in the pre-Petrine tradition and the texts of the European Enlightenment. The basic research method is the textual analysis of the works of Russian political authors of the 18th century, in its various versions: semantic (including hermeneutics), genetic, comparative. The main conclusion is that the reception of the concept of "freedom" from the texts of the European Enlightenment and the formation, on this basis, of the political concept of "freedom", began in the second third of the 18th century, as evidenced by the texts of V.N. Tatishcheva. This reception ended in the 1780s in the form of three basic interpretations of the concept of "freedom" – liberal (texts by N.I. Panin and his associates), conservative (texts by M.M. Shcherbatov) and democratic (texts by A.N. Radishchev).

Keywords: Catherine II, Panin, Shcherbatov, XVIII century, the concept, history of political thought, history of management ideas, history of politics, Russian history, Radishchev

Abstract: The study of the Soviet society formation’s and the total system’s history is closely connected with the study of the repressive policy of the state, as well as those categories of the population that became its victims. The deprivation of voting rights was not only political, but also social in nature: due to the fact that the «disenfranchised» were limited in access to social rights. This measure was carried out in broader statistics of several functions: preventing increased attention to infectious agents, artificially structuring society, establishing control over the detection of the population’s part, maintaining an atmosphere of confrontation and division in society. This issue is relevant for the current state of Kazakhstan’s society, which extends discrimination against certain groups and groups of the population for various reasons, from ethnic to religious, both in Kazakhstan and in the territories of other republics of the former USSR. The article is devoted to the process of transformation of the social status of the inhabitants of the East Kazakhstan region, deprived of voting rights in the period 1926-1936. The author discusses the practice of the work of Soviet authorities and election commissions on the deprivation of this type of rights, analyzes the socio-economic and legal consequences of this repressive measure.

Keywords: bais, repression, legal restrictions, discrimination, election commission, East Kazakhstan region, lishentsy, disenfranchisement, Constitution, Soviet power

Abstract: The object of the study is the buffer zone of the Roman Empire, located between the ancient civilization and the barbarian world. The subject of the study is the history of Armenia during the reign of the Roman emperors Hadrian and Antoninus Pius (117–161), as well as during the Roman-Parthian war of 161–166. Based on the comparative-historical method of research, the authors examine in detail such aspects of the topic as Hadrian's refusal of further conquests and the transition to a defensive strategy of the state. At the same time, special attention is paid to Hadrian's pan-Hellenic project of creating a Hellenic commonwealth uniting all Greeks of the ancient world. The article also focuses on the consistency and calculation of the emperors' actions towards Armenia, which does not fit well with the view of the transition of the empire under Hadrian to the strategic defense of the perimeter of the Roman borders. The main conclusions of this study are that, starting with Hadrian, Roman expansion was not actually stopped, but took other forms (economic and cultural), which actually had to prepare the peaceful entry of this or that buffer territory into the empire. It is possible that in the Caucasus, and in particular in Armenia, the Romans planned to carry out this process in the form of Hellenization, based on the previous experience of adapting Greek culture to local traditions. This, in the end, inevitably led to the perception of already Roman gods by the alien population, familiarity with which was ensured by this Hellenization. The novelty of the study is that the authors considered Hadrian's Panhellenic project in the context of the above-mentioned processes and as an essential component of both internal and external policy towards the buffer dependent states.

Keywords: Hadrian's Panhellenic project, Hellenization, buffer zone, Emperor Antoninus Pius, Emperor Hadrian, Roman peace, Roman Empire, Parthia, Armenia, Roman cultural expansion

Abstract: The subject of the study is the activity of the enlightenment committee Hamburg-Bremen, an organization created after the outbreak of the Ruhr crisis in 1923 by the Hamburg Chamber of Commerce to conduct export propaganda abroad. The article analyzes documents from the funds of the Russian State Military Archive and the German Federal Archives related to the functioning of this structure in 1923-1932. The purpose of the study is to determine how the Hamburg organization managed to deploy large-scale propaganda activity that spread to almost all countries of the world and acquired national significance in Weimar Germany. Special attention is paid to the characteristics of various areas of work, interaction with official departments and the impact of the world economic crisis of 1929-1933 on the activities of the enlightenment committee Hamburg-Bremen. Based on the study, it was revealed that the organization formed in Hamburg published various printed products, an information service was created abroad, and the key direction was covert penetration into the foreign press. The article shows that the reason for such activity lay in the interest of the economic circles of the region in improving the image of the country abroad in order to normalize foreign trade relations, and the possibility of its implementation — in the presence of the necessary connections for propaganda in foreign countries. One of the results of the study is the conclusion that the activities of the enlightenment committee Hamburg-Bremen affected not only export, but also cultural and political propaganda and was supported by the government interested in carrying out propaganda activities in a hidden form and through private structures. Over the years, the Hamburg-based organization has increasingly come under the influence of the state, whose assistance has become especially urgent after the global economic crisis of 1929-1933.

Keywords: press, Revista Alemana, cultural propaganda, export propaganda, the enlightenment committee, Bremen, Hamburg, foreign propaganda, Weimar Germany, global economic crisis

Abstract: In the article, the author examines the main directions in the development of Burkina Faso's foreign policy, which consist in building international relations beneficial to the state, solving political and economic issues. Over the past few years, the terrorist index in Burkina Faso has increased, which has led to a crisis and the emergence of negative relations between the authorities and the people. This causes the state to abandon the French benchmark in foreign policy and prioritize cooperation with Russia, the United States, China and Ghana. In addition, the political instability of neighboring States has also affected Burkina Faso on issues affecting the problem of terrorism - it seems that the exchange of information, coordination of actions and common efforts at the regional and international levels help to improve security and protect the borders of Burkina Faso. Cooperation with other States allows Burkina Faso to contribute to solving common global problems, such as climate change, international terrorism, poverty and migration. Joining efforts and working together with other States can improve efficiency and achieve agreed solutions. We will also pay attention to the opportunity to exchange experience, knowledge and best practices in various fields, such as education, healthcare, agriculture, etc. This can help improve the quality of life and development of the country.

Keywords: policy, foreign policy, terrorism, international relations, cooperation, sanctions, economy, pandemic, colonization, Burkina-Faso

Abstract: The subject of the study is the anti-religious policy built by the state in the Kuibyshev region during the onset of the "thaw". During the onset of the "thaw", the Soviet people initially received hope for more free relations in the cultural environment, representatives of various faiths did not exclude this possibility, but this period was marked by a period of "Khrushchev persecution" by historians. Even during the period of "late Stalinism", the government, consisting of positive supporters of reconciliation with the church, put forward a course "for balanced relations with the Russian Orthodox Church." But this course was stopped in the 1950s by N.S. Khrushchev, who came to power. He and his supporters spoke of this path as unjustified and wrong, saying that this course was a sign of "Stalinism". The main conclusions of the study are that during this period a number of methods of combating religious organizations were used: propaganda was carried out at mass events, mandatory lectures by teachers and well-known professors were held, taxes were increased for administrative positions and representatives of the church, and financial powers and economic decisions of local civil authorities were appropriated, which directly limited the activities of the clergy of any religion for the care, development and dissemination of their worldview. These measures helped to exercise financial and ideological control over the activities of religious denominations. In addition, many parishioners and religious figures could not remain parishioners of religious organizations because of the achievements of scientific progress. All these internal and external factors forced the population to rethink beliefs and open up to new ideas. The research materials can be used in the process of organizing classes on the subject "History of the Samara Region", recommended as part of the school component in the curriculum of educational institutions of the Samara region, in the work of historical circles and extracurricular activities of schoolchildren and students.

Keywords: power, religion, Kuibyshev region, Kuibyshev, scientific and atheistic propaganda, Khrushchev, religious denominations, anti-religious policy, thaw, Soviet period

Abstract: The article is devoted to the analysis of the formation of the organizational foundations of interparliamentary associations established by the parliaments of the constituent entities of the Russian Federation in the 1990s. The object of the study is interparliamentary cooperation developing between the legislative authorities of the constituent entities of the Russian Federation, and the subject is the interparliamentary associations formed by them. The purpose of the study is to identify the features of the organization of interregional associations of legislative authorities of the subjects of the Russian Federation, which are the basis for the formation of horizontal federal relations in the 1990s. Historical-genetic, problem-analytical and historical-comparative methods, as well as the method of structural-functional analysis are used as the methodological basis of the work. Attention is drawn to the fact that at the first stage of the formation of inter–parliamentary associations in 1994, the association became the most popular form of organizational cooperation, and at the second stage, since 1997, the council. The associations were created as consultative and advisory bodies implementing the function of coordinating legislative activities within their own jurisdiction and authority in order to create a single legislative space of the subjects of the Federation of one macro-region. The formation of councils was carried out with the aim of developing legislative initiatives within the joint jurisdiction of the center and the regions concerning the implementation of economic reform. It was concluded that the organizational structure of associations, in general, correlates with the generally accepted standard of activity of the corresponding form of interparliamentary association, defining and streamlining the content and dynamics of the processes of its legislative activity and ensuring the implementation of the goals. Whereas the constituent entities of the Federation – members of the soviets, defining the status of associations as organizations, thereby formally positioned their significance and weight, but in fact focused on building individual relations with the federal center "vertically". Thus, only the association model in the 1990s ensured the formation of the institutional foundations of "horizontal federalism" in Russia.

Keywords: horizontal federalism, federalism, subject of the federation, legislature, parliamentary associations, associations, interparliamentary cooperation, organizational structure, institutional environment, integration associations

Abstract: The object of scientific research is political youth associations associated with pro-government political parties of the Russian Federation during the specified period. The subject of scientific research is the activity of domestic political youth associations in the political, public, cultural and spiritual life of the Russian Federation in the modern period. The purpose of the study is a comprehensive analysis of the activities of political youth associations and determining their place in the socio-political life of the Russian Federation in the 1990s - at the beginning of the XXI century. General scientific and special historical research methods were used. Among the general scientific research methods, the method of formal logic, the method of analysis, the method of synthesis, and the statistical method were used. Among the special historical methods were used: historical-comparative, historical-typological, problem-chronological, structural-functional method, historical-genetic, method of expert assessments. The article reveals the main pages of the history of political youth associations in the modern conditions of rapid rotation of youth movements. Youth associations associated with pro-government political parties of the Russian Federation are considered. Various forms of their activity are revealed. The characteristic of the political activity of organizations having a close connection with political parties is given. The ideological foundations of these associations are described. The study concluded that the key feature of pro-government youth associations in Russia is the presence of a developed idea about the possibility of broad representation of youth in power. In their activities, youth party associations, as a rule, focus on methods that may be of interest to young people – youth camps, public contests, forums, discussion platforms, pickets, rallies. At the moment, the main pro-government youth force in the country is the All-Russian public Organization "Young Guard of United Russia".

Keywords: president, congress, event, party, politics, Russia, young people, political association, project, idea

Abstract: The object of scientific research is the opposition political youth associations associated with the political parties of the Russian Federation. The subject of scientific research is the activity of domestic political youth associations in various spheres of public life of the Russian Federation in the modern period. The purpose of the study is to analyze the historical path and activities of political opposition youth associations and determine their place in the socio-political life of the Russian Federation in the 1990s - at the beginning of the XXI century. General scientific (analysis, synthesis and others) and special historical research methods (historical-comparative, historical-genetic and others) were used. The article analyzes the historical path of the opposition political youth associations of Russia at the turn of the second and third millennia. The complex process of the development of multiparty youth associations of modern Russia, the formation of the "right-left" opposition is considered. The features of specific political youth associations are analyzed. It was concluded that modern opposition political youth associations, from the beginning of their existence to the present, are characterized by fragmentation and disunity, lack of clear programs, effective forms of work. They have a variety of ideological foundations. At the moment, the main direction of their activity is political. Opposition political youth associations are experiencing limited tools of their own propaganda. A common feature of all opposition youth associations is the absence of openly Nazi views. The left opposition has the greatest influence among youth opposition actors.

Keywords: congress, party, politics, communists, activity, political process, politic system, opposition, project, youth

Abstract: The subject of the study is the results, results and consequences of the political activity of Thomas Jefferson (1743-1826). Jefferson was the author of the Declaration of Independence and the third president of the United States, considered one of the founding fathers of the United States. The first American president to hold the posts of Secretary of State, Vice President and President of the United States successively. The article examines the political ideas of Jefferson, who was one of the first political figures who spoke and justified the idea of separating its North American colonies from Great Britain. His political ideas and decisions as a statesman and politician were timely and brought much benefit to his country. As the author of the Declaration of Independence of the United States, he made a huge contribution to the creation of the United States. Its adoption meant the formation of a new state - the United States. For him, the principles of the declaration were to create a free American state based on the principles of democracy and civil liberty. The Declaration defined the social and legal status of a person in society. Declaring the people the only source of power, she put them on a par with the great ideologists of the Enlightenment. As Ambassador to France, he managed to secure a number of trade agreements with European countries. His merits as president undoubtedly lie in the acquisition of Louisiana and the establishment of diplomatic relations with Russia, as well as the pacification of relations with Great Britain.

Keywords: declaration of independence, Political activity, North American colonies, Constitution, The Federalist Party, the founding fathers, Republican Party, Louisiana Purchase, US Secretary of State, Revolutionary Democracy

Abstract: The author considers the problem of the Nehru-Gandhi family rule as a phenomenon of the political history of modern, postcolonial India. The purpose of this work is to identify the main aspects of this phenomenon identified by domestic and Indian specialists. The main research methods were comparative-historical, which allowed to compare the scientific publications of domestic scientists, taking into account the Soviet and post-Soviet periods of the history of our country with the publications of Indian specialists, and cultural-anthropological, which involves the study of the positions of the authors of scientific publications in the formulation of the problem and the selection of arguments in defense of their point of view; the relationship of domestic and Indian scientists to the object of research. The relevance of the work is explained by the fact that the Nehru-Gandhi family and currently actively participates in the political life of the Republic of India, still have a significant political influence, holding leadership positions in the Indian National Congress Party. In addition, their political activities in 1947-1991 continue to be the subject of discussion in the scientific and intellectual community both in our country and in India. The novelty of the work is explained by the insufficient study of the designated problem in domestic and Indian historiography. The main conclusion is that the phenomenon of Nehru-Gandhi rule was formed on the basis of many political and socio-cultural factors described in the work, which are described in detail by domestic and Indian experts.

Keywords: congressional socialism, Indian National Congress, phenomenon, Rajiv Gandhi, Jawaharlal Nehru, Indira Gandhi, historiography, India, Nehru-Gandhi dynasty, political dynasty

Abstract: The subject of the study is the religious policy pursued by the Communist Party of China in the period from the XVI to the XVIII National Congress of the CPC (2002-2012). During the reign of the "fourth generation" of party and state leaders, the approach to solving internal problems of the People's Republic of China has become more complex, the issue of regulating religious activities has received special attention in determining the further social development of the People's Republic of China. The key role in the work is assigned to the consideration of the main trends of religious policy: the tasks of religious policy, legal regulation, party-state control bodies, the relationship of religious policy with the concept of a "harmonious society", the role of Confucianism. Particular attention is paid to the analysis of the triple "religious market" model, which conditionally divides religious practice in China into legal, illegal and "shadow" categories. The novelty of the research lies in the consideration of religious policy as a management process with systemic properties. Based on the sources, the main changes in the implementation of religious policy that occurred during the "fourth generation" of party and state leaders were traced. The work is based on the method of system analysis, which allowed analyzing the principles of the construction and operation of the political system of the People's Republic of China as a whole and studying the features of all components of the system, their interdependence and internal patterns of development. The article substantiates the position that religious policy consisted in a comprehensive detailed regulation of the religious sphere of public life. The pragmatic goals of the policy were the separation between legal and illegal religious activities, control over patriotic religious associations and, importantly, bringing society to a state of "harmony", emphasizing neo-Confucian principles in the identity of the Chinese nation.

Keywords: patriotic associations, traditional culture, a harmonious society, Confucianism, religious policy, religions of China, history of the PRC, People's Republic of China, freedom of religion, regulation of the religious sphere

Abstract: The article analyzes Indian English-language publications devoted to the Nehru-Gandhi dynasty, written and published after 1991, which became a turning point in the history of independent India, this is the subject of this study. The purpose of this work is to determine the nature of scientific assessments of the role of the Nehru-Gandhi dynasty in the political history of India in the second half of the XX century in English-language publications of Indian authors after 1991. The main method used in the work was cultural-anthropological, as it involves the study of the positions of the authors of scientific publications in the formulation of the problem and the selection of arguments in defense of their point of view; the attitude of Indian scientists to the object of research, as well as the identification of political preferences of researchers, the features of scientific schools and trends in historical science that they represent. The relevance of the work is explained by the fact that the Nehru-Gandhi family and currently actively participates in the political life of the Republic of India, still have a significant political influence, holding leadership positions in the Indian National Congress Party. In addition, their political activities in 1947-1991 continue to be the subject of discussion in the scientific and intellectual community of India. The novelty of the work is explained by the insufficient study of Indian historiography devoted to the history of the country after independence in 1947. The main conclusion is that due to the large-scale political changes in India that began after the death of Rajiv Gandhi in 1991, more and more criticism of the political dynasty can be found in the works of Indian specialists, but at the same time there is no consensus in Indian science about the Nehru-Gandhi dynasty at the present time, pluralism of opinions has very wide and polar range. This can be considered the main feature of Indian historiography.

Keywords: hindutva, saffronization, Rajiv Gandhi, Indira Gandhi, Jawaharlal Nehru, historiography, India, Nehru-Gandhi dynasty, Indian National Congress, political dynasty

Abstract: The article is devoted to the study of the Benghazi Treaty of Friendship, Partnership and Cooperation of 2008, concluded between Italy and Libya. This treaty is of particular interest from the point of view of its retrospective, since less than two years after its entry into force, Italy unilaterally suspended the treaty in order to enable NATO allies to launch airstrikes on Libya from military bases in Italy. The author pays attention to the reasons that necessitated the signing of this agreement, originating from the time of the formation of colonial relations between Italy and Libya. Having determined the significance of the treaty taking into account the historical development of the two countries, with the help of content analysis, the author analyzes the articles of the document in order to determine, confirm or refute the expectations of Italy and Libya from the Benghazi Treaty. Content analysis is carried out in three directions: analysis of the preamble, evaluation of the frequency and percentage in the content of the contract and a summary analysis of the entire content. As a result, the author forms the corresponding summary tables, on the basis of which the content of the agreement is evaluated. As a result, based on a retrospective analysis of the relationship between Italian-Libyan relations, an assessment of the factors that led to the signing of the treaty, a content analysis of its content and an assessment of a number of consequences after its signing, the author concludes that the idea of the Benghazi Treaty is promising, but not implemented in the development of relations between Italy and Libya.

Keywords: NATO, International agreements, International economy, International politics, Berlusconi, Gaddafi, International relations, The Benghazi Treaty, Libya, Italy

Abstract: The subject of this article is the memoirs of the British Methodist missionary Henry Lunn about his stay in India and the activities of the Indian National Congress (INC) in 1887-1888. On the basis of G. Lanna's letters from the Madras presidency, his memoirs and newspaper publications, the ideas of a metropolitan resident about the socio-political life of India and the participation of the Christian community in it, the role and place of the INC in the national movement, the weaknesses and advantages of ideas and demands, the formation of oppositional INC currents are revealed. The composition and features of the social development of the Christian population of South India are considered. В  The main conclusion of the study is that the British rule in India entailed significant changes in the spiritual sphere of Indian society, which resulted in an increase in the Christian population in the country and a wide spread of missionary activity. The Christian community, relatively small in comparison with others, was socially active, its representatives played a significant role in the formation of the INC and its activities in the early years of its existence. This was reflected in the memoirs of G. Lannes, who considered the emergence of the INC as a consequence of the progress brought to India by British rule and defended the idea of the need for the INC to cooperate with the colonial administration.

Keywords: british rule, methodism, memoirs, Madras Presidency, national movement, Henry Lunn, The British Empire, christianity, Indian National Congress, missionary work

Abstract: The subject of this research is examination of the activity of the Soviet pedagogues in teaching foreign students based on the materials of the Mongolian worker’s faculty. The object of this research is the Soviet-Mongolian cooperation in educational sphere that developed in the 1920s – 1930s. The Mongolian worker’s faculty was formed in Verkhne-Udinsk for teaching Mongolian and Tuvan students. It is noted that the academic staff was represented by the prominent pedagogues of the Buryat ASSR. The teaching of foreign students was carried out within the framework of international cooperation and allowed distributing Soviet ideology. The Mongolian People's Republic and Tuvan People's Republic viewed the USSR as the model for further development. The analysis of activity of the pedagogues of Mongolian worker’s faculty allowed reveals the key vectors of work with foreign students from the Mongolian People's Republic and the Tuvan People's Republic. Besides intense educational and upbringing activity, the teaching staff paid special attention to the adaptation of students and formation of worldview in the spirit of socialist values. The authors’ special contribution lies in determination of the peculiarities of organizing political and educational activity in the institution. The novelty of this consists in examination of the contribution of the pedagogues of the Mongolian worker’s faculty to the establishment of friendly relations with the neighboring states – Mongolia and Tuva.

Keywords: Verkhneudinsk, Educational cooperation, Mongolian workers' faculty, Students, Pedagogical staff, The international cooperation, Education, Mongolia, Tyva, Buryatiya

Abstract: The subject of this research is the formation of state borders of Afghanistan throughout the period from the mid XVIII century to the late XIX century. A brief overview is given to this process during the existence of the Durrani Empire, while the main part of research is covers the events of the XIX century, since the reign of the Barakzai Dynasty. The article leans on the works of the experts in history of Afghanistan of the corresponding period, history foreign policy of Afghanistan and its individual aspects, as well as related documents. This topic has not previously become the subject of separate research, which defines the novelty of this publication. The main results are as follows: the author divides the history of formation of the borders of Afghanistan into two stages – since 1747 to the mid XIX century, characterizes by the dynamic policy of Afghan rulers aimed at the expansion of their territories, including through military conquests; the second half of the XIX century, which determines the new borders of Afghanistan primarily by the external political actors and their activity. It is worth noting that the period from the late XVIII century and the entire XIX century marks the formation of state border of Afghanistan that remain to this day.

Keywords: history of Afghanistan, Dost Muhammad Khan, Durrani, territory, borders, 19th century, history of foreign policy, Afghanistan, Shir Ali Khan, Abdurrahman Khan

Abstract: This article analyzes the evolution of theoretical approaches of the representatives of foreign (European and US) public thought towards studying the problem of political peace and conflict interaction. The object of this research is the conflictogenic political relations as a form of historical development of the state and social institutions. The subject of this research is the steady development of socio-political and socio-philosophical theories related to political conflicts and social stability. Research methodology is based on the structural-functional and systemic analysis, comparative-historical and problematic-chronological methods, as well as other general scientific and special principles of historical cognition. The author comes to the conclusion that the representations of the political forms of social conflict interaction have deeply rooted causal links with different historical eras (Antiquity, Middle Ages, Renaissance, Modern Age, Contemporary History), and have made a long way from “naivety” and dogmatism to interdisciplinarity, from unconditional historicism to social systematicity in their conceptual approaches. The novelty of this article consists in comprehensive examination of the evolution of methodology for studying the conceptual-categorical space of political conflict through the prism of the historical development of mankind, thereby revealing the impact of conflictogenic nature of the political process upon the course of world history.

Keywords: history of philosophical thought, history of political thought, history of conflictology, history of science, political interaction, political conflict, politics, social thought, political relations, political stability

Abstract: This article traces the evolution of the Western European policy of the General Charles de Gaulle during his presidency. In the early 1950s, he willingly cooperated with the European countries in terms of creating the economic union; however, in the course of solution of decolonization issues and, namely the Algerian problem that constrained the implementation of the key vectors of state policy, the president began focused on advancing the concept of national mightiness of France and commitment to the principles of intergovernmental cooperation in the development of integration. Charles de Gaulle fought for the foundation of the political union “Europe of the Homelands”, in which France would be assigned a significant role. The article analyzes de Gaulle’s failures in negotiations with the “P5+1” countries, which once again demonstrated to the Europeans that building integration is a long and complex process that does not tolerate rapid decisions and requires the ability to compromise. Special attention is turned to the development of integration policy of the General Charles de Gaulle based on his formal speeches, correspondence, and memoirs. De Gaulle's efforts in the sphere of integration policy of the Fifth Republic yielded certain results. First and foremost, he was able to establish the superiority of national principles in addressing the general policy issues in the European Community. Secondly, he prevented the Great Britain from joining the Common Market, as from his opinion it was an economic and political competitor of France. Thirdly, de Gaulle strengthened the international reputation of France as the country that was at the dawn and in the lead of the integration processes in Europe.

Keywords: Common Market, European Economic Community, treaties of Rome, the evolution of a policy, The Fifth Republic, European integration policy, Charles de Gaulle, The Fouché's plans, the France greatness, war in Algeria

Abstract: The object of this research is the foreign policy of Denmark in the 1980s. The subject of this research on the one hand is the ideological foundations of Denmark's foreign policy during this period, which were strongly affected by the ideas of European social democracy, and on the other hand – the influence of the Danish Parliament (Folketing) upon the formation of Denmark’s official position on the issues of European security discussed within the framework of NATO. Denmark’s refutation of neutrality after the World War II and its entry into NATO in many ways determined the foreign policy position of Denmark throughout the Cold War as a small European state that perceived the Soviet Union as a threat to national security. At the same time, the desire of Denmark of maintain maximum flexibility and avoid making far-reaching commitments within the framework of NATO, led to the fact that Denmark was often perceived as an unreliable and inconvenient ally. The period from 1982 to 1988 indicates the Atlantic dissidence of Denmark and simultaneous improvement of relations with the Soviet Union), when Denmark’s representatives in the NATO sessions, being obliged to take into account the position of the parliamentary majority in the Folketing, were forced to make reservations to the final documents of the sessions, expressing disagreement or criticism of implemented measures. Among the Russian scholars dealing with the history of Denmark, this period has not yet received wide coverage. This article is an attempt to describe and explain the causes and consequences of the period of the “policy of reservations” for Denmark’s foreign policy in the context of the end of Cold War and in the conditions of transition towards the post-bipolar system of international relations.

Keywords: nuclear weapons, Double-Track decision, USA, USSR, footnote policy, Folketing, Social-democratic Party of Denmark, NATO, Denmark, Euromissile crisis

Abstract: The object of this research is the collective fate of former members of the united opposition (Bolshevik-Leninist faction) in the 1930s. This topic is rarely covered by the researchers and remains poorly studied. The subject of this article is the peculiarities of professional career of the oppositionists reestablished in the ranks of the Communist Party. The group under review is the members of the All Union Communist Party (Bolsheviks), who in May 1927 signed the “Declaration of 83”. Comparative analysis of the available biographical records on the signers of the “Declaration of 83” allow determining the spheres of professional activity of the former Bolshevik-Leninists. The author enlists the spheres of their activity, indicating the number of employed capitulated factionists therein, as well as positions held by them, enterprises and institutions they worked at during this period. The conducted research demonstrates that the highest concentration of capitulated oppositionists was in the industrial sector, while professional spheres, such as science, trade, etc., are noticeably behind. At the same time, former Bolshevik-Leninists often mastered new types of activities. Most of them were appointed as chief executives, which the author explains with shortage of personnel committed to the Communist ideas who possessed organizational experience. The novelty of this research consists in the statement that the returned to the All Union Communist Party (Bolsheviks) supporters of Trotskyism and Zinovievism), despite their demotion, were actively engaged in Stalin's modernization. They were appointed with executive positions and included into the ruling elite (although holding a special “niche” therein).

Keywords: biography, opposition statement, political exile, faction, Bolsheviks-Leninists, united opposition, Bolshevik party, social rank, professional activity, nomenklature

Abstract: History of the Principality of Montenegro, proclaimed after several centuries of consistent struggle with the Ottoman Empire, was quite short. As an independent state, it existed from 1878 to 1918. The reasons are explained by the political culture and level of professional qualifications of the Montenegrin elite, which had to resolve most difficult challenges dictated by the delayed and accelerated modernization of the country. The goal of this article consists in determination of significant characteristics of the Montenegrin ruling class, which substantiate the successes and failures of the principality. Two most prominent Montenegrin politicians of this time, Crown Prince Nicholas of Montenegro and Foreign Minister Gavro Vuković attempted to assess the results that were achieved, as well as their role in the political processes. A comparative analysis carried out on their narrative heritage, assessments given by the contemporaries, and archival materials led to the conclusion that the supreme leaders of Montenegro to the fullest extent possessed the qualities that were inherent to the people as a whole. Political culture of the Montenegrins, which has not previously become the subject of research within the Russian science, remained patriarchal and retained vestiges of tribal structure that impeded establishment of the state of modern type. Several centuries of hostile encirclement and permanent war, put the Montenegrins noticeably behind with regards to the development of education. Therefore, there was a severe shortage of managerial human resources. The low level of professional competence of the elite was compensated by placing emphasis on the military past and traditional values. However, the excessive warlike attitude led to reassessment of their powers, mismanagement with regards to domestic and foreign policy, as well as impeded the development of statehood of Montenegro. The acquired results may be valuable for culturologists and political scientists as the empirical material for studying such complicated concept as the political culture.

Keywords: professional management training, political elite, Gavro Vukovic, Nikola Petrovic Njegos, modernization, political culture, Principality of Montenegro, memoirs, public speeches, self-analysis

Abstract: The subject of this research is the struggle of political elites in Montenegro, which was a constituent federated state of the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, in the late 1990s. In 1997, as a result of split between the ruling in Montenegro Democratic Party of Socialists, the political life of the country faced a severe crisis. The opposition wing within Democratic Party of Socialists, headed by the young politician Milo Đukanović won the confrontation. The result of this conflict became a drastic change in the country's political orientation in its relations with Serbia and the federal center in Belgrade. The author examines the factors that caused crisis situation and proliferation in the republic. The article determines the key stages of political confrontation in the republic and their fundamental characteristics. The first stage marks the internal struggle of the elites, juxtaposition of reformist wing of the ruling party, which criticized the allied authorities in Belgrade, and its conservative parliamentary group that supported alliance with the authorities of the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia and its leader Slobodan Milošević. At the second stage, the confrontation extends beyond the republic and shifts onto the federal level, becoming an inter-republican conflict. The scientific novelty of this work consists in the original approach towards studying the topic at hand, using the new sources and literature.

Keywords: National Relations, FRY, Slobodan Milosevic, Milo Djukanovic, Serbia, Yugoslavia, Montenegro, Elections, Modern history, Political crisis

Abstract: This article is dedicated to examination of the role of Parliamentary Assembly in development of the Union State. The goal is to trace the parliamentary activity in the Union State throughout the entire time of its existence, the objectives that were pursued, their transformation, and change of conditions for their accomplishment. This topic is especially relevant in the current context. A new milestone has passed in the history of Union State: December 2019 marked twenty years since its creation. Agreement on the formation of Parliamentary Assembly of the Community of Belarus-Russia Union State was signed earlier, in 1996. The novelty of this works consists in comprehensive and detailed analysis of different stages in formation of Parliamentary Assembly, which allows describing their role in further consolidation of the Union State. The scientific problem of this article can be articulated as follows: Parliamentary Assembly is not just a legislative institution that formulates the agenda for development of the Union State; it is also a platform for a continuous dialogue between Russia and Belarus. Therefore, examination of this government institution in an urgent scientific problem that allows revealing the key aspects of evolution of the Union State. As the resources for this article, the author explored the legislative acts of the Republic of Belarus and the Russian Federation, legal information from official portals of the Union State and the Parliamentary Assembly. This underline the need for further development of parliamentarism in Russia-Belarus Union State for the purpose of improvement and strengthening of relations between the countries in the current conditions of international transformation. The article is based on most relevant documents pertaining to Russia-Belarus relations for the period from 1991 to the present.

Keywords: legislative act, Belarus, budget, parliamentarism, post-Soviet space, integration, Union state, Parliamentary Assembly, transformation, session

Abstract: This article explores the process of formation of foreign policy ideology of the Republic of Korea. The object of this research is the national ideology of the Republic of Korea, while the subject is the ideological concepts of its foreign policy. Analysis is conducted on the historical background, cultural and sociopolitical context, which affected the formation of South Korean ideology. The article describes the foreign policy concepts of the Republic of Korea, using the example of ideological course of the administrations of Lee Myung-Bak, Park Geun-hye and Moon Jae-on. The author applies the comparative-historical and problem-chronological methods, as well as content analysis in examination of the texts of documents for determining conceptual grounds of foreign policy. The Russian Korean Studies do not feature comprehensive research on the topic of ideology in the sphere of foreign policy of the Republic of Korea, which defines the scientific novelty of this work. The following conclusions were formulated: 1) Historically, Korea was in a state of foreign policy dependency, which impacted the formation of nationalistic views among the political elite; 2) The peculiarities of development of the Republic of Korea led to the division of political forces into two main groups that vector the foreign policy within the framework of genera paradigm, characterized by nationalistic context and the strive to ensure sustainable development of the country and regional security; 3) The ideological concepts of political groups mark a number of differences in the attitude to the alliance with the United States and interaction with the Democratic People's Republic of Korea. However, the implementation of foreign policy strategy of the Republic of Korea depends on a particular situation, thus the ideological course of foreign policy does not always reflect the real government actions. The ideological differences in foreign policy of the rightwing and leftwing forces become more conditional – the pragmatic objectives aimed at preservation of stable relations and balance of forces, as well as maintenance of regional security, come to the forefront.

Keywords: foreign-policy initiative, ideological conception, ideological attitude, political elite, national branding, inter-Korean relations, nationalism, Republic of Korea, foreign policy, ideology

Abstract: This article examines the evolution of the normative-legal aspects of UN peacekeeping activity as one of the key phenomena of peacekeeping under the aegis of the United Nations. The author also analyzes the position of the Russian Federation on this question, since Russia is one of the major players on the international arena and active participant of peacekeeping activity within the UN system. Special attention is paid to the normative documents of the Russian Federation, which reflect a clear position of Russia on peacekeeping. Currently, peacekeeping plays an urgent role in world politics, helps to prevent escalation of multiple conflicts, despite the existence of problem clusters within the United Nations peacekeeping activity. Peackeeping also yielded great benefit to the international community; however, it needs changes and improvements to increase its effectiveness in regulation of drawn-out conflicts on the world arena.

Keywords: Russian Federation, Brahimi Report, General Assembly, Security Council, UN Charter, United Nations Organization, Peacekeeping, Gromyko, Kissinger, Cold War

Abstract: The subject of this research is the mechanism of formation of the single-party political system in Soviet Russia, and dislodgement by the Bolsheviks of opposition parties from the political and electoral process. The article reconstructs the methods of struggle of Bolsheviks against opposition in the course of elections and between election periods, as well as reviews statistical data on the participation of parties in Council elections and different levels of the Congresses of Soviets. The author reveals the role of agitation-propagandistic, repressive, and administrative means of struggle between Bolsheviks and opposition parties, and results of implementation of such methods. The scientific novelty consists in comprehensive examination and classification of the means of struggle of Bolsheviks against opposition parties during the first Council electoral campaigns. The first methods have formed at the elections of 1918, and later undergone extensions and amendments. The range of means of struggle against opposition includes the agitation-propagandistic, repressive, and administrative pressuring. The key role in liquidation of multi-party system was carried out by the repressive and agitation-propagandistic methods, which were not the method used in elections specifically, but produced most significant effect upon the electoral process. Diverse methods of administrative pressuring , such as restriction of pre-election agitation, ban on the speeches of opposition parties representatives, prohibitions on publicizing the lists of opposition candidate (prohibition on participation in the elections), compulsory re-voting, were applied directly at the elections and served as supplements to the more coarse measures of repressive character.

Keywords: methods of administrative pressure, repressive methods, propaganda methods, Social Revolutionaries, Mensheviks, Bolsheviks, elections to the Soviets, fight against the opposition, liquidation of opposition parties, political monopoly of the Bolsheviks

Abstract: The subject of this research is the corruption practices of the party leaders and economic officials during the Soviet industrialization of the 1930’s. Based on the documents of party control agencies, the author examines the factors of misappropriation of financial and materials resources for personal gain. Relevance of this study is substantiated by the possibility of deeper understanding of the causes of repressions of the 1930’s with regards to regional authorities and economic officials. The newly introduced into the scientific discourse historical sources allow clarifying the records on the factors contributing to backlog in construction of a number of large industrial enterprise, housing accommodations for workers, and public amenities in one of the largest industrial centers of the Sovier Union. The application of descriptive method allowed demonstrating the details of corruption relationships between the party leaders administration of a number of industrial enterprises. Historical-genetic method helped to reconstruct and specify the circumstances of failure in construction of a series of industrial objects and determine the causes that led to severe financial and living conditions of the employees of the large industrial construction sites in Nizhny Tagil during the period of industrialization. The novelty consists in conducting the first in history special scientific research dedicated to the corruption relations between party nomenclature and economic officials during industrialization of the Ural region in 1930’s. The conclusion is made that corruption actions of the economic officials and party leaders negatively affected the implementation of plans for industrial development. Their unlawful activity not only inflicted an immense damage, but also worsened the financial and living conditions of the employees and engineering and technical personnel.

Keywords: history of industry, corruption, economic crimes, Nizhnii Tagil, Ural, Ivan Kabakov, party and state system of the power, industrialization, administrative practices, workers

Abstract: The subject of this research is the corruption practices among the party and economic leadership in the Ural Region during the Soviet industrialization period of 1930’s.  Based on the documents of party control bodies, the article examines the facts of misappropriation of funds and material resources. The relevance of this research is substantiated by the attempt to profoundly understand the causes of repressions of the 1930’s pertaining to regional government and big economic executives. The newly introduced into the scientific discourse historical sources allow clarifying the information on the factors affecting the delays in construction of a number of large industrial plants, as well as housing for workers and amenities in the industrial centers of Ural Region. The descriptive method allowed demonstrating the details of corruption relationships between the party leadership and executives of industrial plants. The historical-genetic method allowed reconstructing and specifying the circumstances of disruption in the construction of a number of important industrial objects, as well as clarifying the reasons of severe living conditions of the employees of large industrial construction projects of the Ural Region during the industrialization period. The novelty of this article consists in conducting a special scientific research dedicated to the corruption relationships between party nomenclatura and economic leaders. The conclusion is made that the unlawful actions of economic and party leadership contradicted the proclaimed by the Soviet propaganda image of a communist, ideas of equality and justice, inflicted irreparable reputational damage, and discredited the Soviet government system overall.

Keywords: party and state system of the power, Ivan Kabakov, Ural, Sverdlovsk, economic crimes, corruption, history of industry, industrialization, administrative practices, workers

Abstract:  Based on the materials of highly demanded and many times reissued textbooks on the history of Russia, which undoubtedly influences the formation of representations of several generations of Russian students about the past, this article analyzes the peculiarities of ascension to the throne of Catherine II. The author examines such topics as the ancestry of the empress and the circumstances of overthrow of Peter II in 1762. Special attention is given to the strategies, which allow the authors to substantiate the legitimacy of the reign of Catherine II. The article applies the principle of historicism for determining the dependence of the content and methods of translating information about the past events on the sociopolitical environment that affected the creation of school textbooks. The scientific novelty is defined by the fact that this article is fist to study the question of the legitimacy of reign of Catherine II on the materials of school textbooks of the XIX century. The conclusion is made that the authors were trying to bypass the problem of legitimacy either through concealing the circumstance of overthrow of Peter III and presenting the empress as the legatee of her husband; or by depicting the coup as an event contributing to the improvement of wellbeing of the Russian nation and enhancing the glory of the empire.

Keywords: legitimacy, power, Catherine the Great, 19th century, Russian history, culture, school textbook, memory of the past, hero, historical myth

Abstract: The subject of this research is the involvement of the People's Commissariat for Internal Affairs and the All-Russian Central Executive Committee in organization of elections to Soviets and congresses of Soviets during the establishment of the Soviet State from 1917 to 1924.  Due to the absence of the nationwide specialized elective body, the key role in leading the election campaigns in RSFSR throughout the indicated period belonged to NKVD. The article describes the peculiarities of establishment and exercise of powers of People’s Commissariat in organization of elections. The scientific novelty lies in examination of the role of the supreme and central Soviet bodies in the organization of election campaigns during the establishment of the Soviet State based on the newly introduced to the scientific discourse archival materials and published sources. Soviet organization of elective bodies significantly reproduced the prerevolutionary model, and suggested the creation of specialized elective bodies at the local levels while retaining a substantial role of administrative branches under the authority of NKVD. The People’s Commissariat did not consider the organization of elections for Internal Affairs as a priority sphere of activity, which led to a chaotic and unsystematic exercise of powers in leading the election campaigns. Ineffective exercise of powers with regard to elections by the central apparatus of NKVD, as well as its territorial branches, logically led to reorganization of NKVD apparatus and delegation of these powers to subdivisions of VTsIK and executive committees of the Soviets.

Keywords: determining the circle of persons deprived of voting rights, consideration of complaints deprived, electoral statistics, the exercise of authority, Soviet election campaigns, All-Russian Central Executive Committee, Commissariat of Internal Affairs, territorial bodies of the Commissariat, reorganization of the Commissariat, interagency conflicts

Abstract: Revolution in the Belgian lands of the United Kingdom of the Netherlands and uprising in the Kingdom of Poland rarely become the subject of research dedicate to the foreign policy of Nicholas I. Although there are grounds for believing that these were the milestone events from the perspective of transformation of the Vienna System of 1815, as well as gradual formation of prerequisites to Anglo-French bonding that resulted in the military alliance of the period of Crimean War. The subject of this work is the correlation between the events of Belgian Revolution and Polish Uprising in the foreign policy of the Russian Empire of 1830-1831.  The research is based on combining the problematic-chronological and systemic-historical approaches to the analysis of the indicated events. The scientific novelty lies in proving the tenuity of the existing in the national and foreign historiography outlook upon the events in Belgium and Poland as the independent from one another phenomena. The various sources demonstrate that Nicholas I and his diplomats perceived these events as the interrelated manifestations of crisis of the existed at the moment Vienna System, which required comprehensive approach to their solution.

Keywords: The United Kingdom of the Netherlands, The Quadruple Alliance, the Kingdom of Belgium, The Holy Alliance, History of the Russian Empire, History of Diplomacy, the crisis of the Vienna System, Foreign policy, the Uprising in the Kingdom of Poland, the Belgian Revolution

Abstract: This article demonstrates the key stages of the advancement of US policy in Central Asia region, which includes five countries: Kazakhstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan. The United States were among the first to recognize these countries as the full-fledged actors of international relations. The author determines the three stages in development of the relations between the United States and the countries of Central Asia. The first stage marks the acquisition of sovereignty after dissolution of the Soviet Union in the late XX century; the second falls on the presidency of George W. Bush (2001-2009) and ended in 2014; the third began in 2015. The article presents the texts of bilateral agreements between the United States and five republics of Central Asia; a total of over 60 agreements, the majority of which have been signed by Kazakhstan due to the problem of annihilation of nuclear armaments on its territory. Over the recent time, in US policy with regards to Kyrgyzstan have occurred certain issues and misunderstandings, which forces to search for new vectors and opportunities in the relations of these two countries. Therefore, it is imperative to continue studying the geopolitical interests of the United States in Central Asia and Kyrgyzstan in the area of international security.

Keywords: USA, stages, Central Asia, American politics, New Silk Road, Big Central Asia, Astana declaration, Encyclopedia of Afghan Jihad, regional security, Kygyzstan

Abstract: The subject of this research is the legal aspects of the Soviet concession policy of the 1920’s. The research is conducted through examination of the materials from central archives. It is noted that the goal of concession policy was to create the favorable investment climate for attracting foreign capital to the Soviet economy. The author underlines the concession agreement was a special agreement allowing the derogation from the Soviet legislation to the benefit of foreign entrepreneurs. Concession signified that the laws on state monopoly for development of mineral resource, conduct of foreign trade, ban or restrictions to hiring workforce, etc. did not apply to some of the entrepreneurs. The use of comparative-historical and problematic-chronological methods allowed determining the peculiarities of legal regulation of foreign concessions in the 1920’s. The scientific novelty lies in demonstration of strong correlation between the political and economic tasks in the policy of Soviet State pertinent to foreign concessions. This correlation  was clearly traced in legal regime of a concessionary company. Property of concessionary enterprise was owned by the state; a concessioner was merely a hirer. The legislation provided the state with the right to control the production activity of the concession, and prematurely terminate the contract at any time. Most of the concession agreements were terminated at the government’s initiative and without compensation. Only those, close to the Soviet elites, received a partial compensation for the losses. Concession existed for as long as the government was interested in it for any reasons of international, foreign economic, or domestic economic character.

Keywords: investment climate, concession agreement, joint companies, regulation, concession law, concession, attraction of foreign capital, elimination of concessions, Main Concession Committee, Decree on concessions

Abstract: The subject of this research is the examination of news texts in Turkish newspapers through the prism of the Russia-Turkey relations. The object of this research is the basic Turkish newspapers published following the execution of Ankara Agreement. Particular attention is given to the reception of Turkish newspapers over the period of September 28 through October 29, 1939. The author reviews the materials of the publishers “Cumhuriyet” (the Republic), “Ulus” (the People), “Tan” (the Dawn), “Son Posta” (the Last Message), “Akşam” (the Evening), “İkdam” (the Promotion), and “Vakit” (the Time). The article compares the materials of seven publishers, as well as make conclusions on their similarities and discrepancies. The scientific novelty is substantiated by comparing the materials of the publishers that have not been previously examines in the Russian language literature. A conclusion is made that the indicated timeframe (September 28 – October 29, 1939), from the perspective of the considered in the article publisher, was paramount for the Republic of Turkey in selection of the political course.

Keywords: Negotiations, USSR, Mass Media, Turkish Press, Neutrality of Turkey, The Second World War, Foreign Policy of Turkey, History of Turkey, Ankara Agreement, The Anglo-Franco-Turkish Treaty

Abstract: The subject of this research is the process of revision of the Soviet past that took place in USSR during the years of Perestroika (1985-1991). The author analyzes the indicated process within the paradigm of the “historical policy”. This article familiarizes with the key vectors of historical policy implemented over the recent years of the existence of Soviet Union, as well as the factors that affected their emergence. The accent is made on description of the process of formation of the contours of “historical policy”, analysis of creation of infrastructure within the “realm of memory”, and factors that affect the implementation of historical policy. The author examines the documents and decrees, party publications, mass media, stenographs of the meetings and conferences. For determination of the main principles of historical policy, was conducted a discourse analysis of the performances of the top officials and their memorial speeches, as well as quantitative and qualitative content analysis of a number of publishers, including the newspapers “Moscow News”, journal “Communist”, etc. The scientific novelty consists in a comprehensive description of the revision of the Soviet past during the years of Perestroika, concept of the “historical policy”. Currently, within the historiography, this term is referred to as the phenomenon of post-Soviet period. The author reveals the application of the key methods and approaches of the historical policy during the period of Perestroika, and their interrelation with the historical policy in the post-Soviet context. The article for the first time introduces into the scientific discourse some documents from the personal archives of the Secretary of  Central Committee of the Communist Party of the USSR A. N. Yakovlev and editor-in-chief of the newspaper “Moscow News” Yegor Yakovlev.

Keywords: overcoming the past, the campaign of de-Stalinization, Soviet past, commemoration of October, memory space, the era of perestroika, politics of memory, history politics, World War II, collective memory

Abstract: The object of this research is the space policy of the United States as one of the leading factors in the process of cessation of the arms race. The authors turn attention to a special role of the space activity of the Unite State in the process of transition from the large-scale build-up of armaments towards the constructive dialogue between two hyperpowers in the late 1980’s. Based on the guidelines of American presidents, international treaties, and extensive research, the work substantiates positive impact of the space theme in the process of détente as an efficient instrument for cultivating bilateral relations in the conditions of retention and even aggravation of the economic and military-political antagonism. The authors also actualize the role of commercial component of space policy of the United States as a tool for accessing the technical potential of countries – successors of the Soviet space program. The scientific novelty consists primarily in application of the complex approach towards examining space policy of the United States in the period of cessation of the arms race, which yet had not been a subject of study within the modern historical science. The conclusion is made that the process of détente of the late 1980’s approved and consolidated the potential of space as a ideologically and politically neutral sphere of the mutually beneficial intrastate cooperation. Space policy of the United States, not lacking in the destructive impact upon escalation of competition between the two hyperpowers, demonstrated significant potential of the positive effect upon the détente of international relations.

Keywords: collapse of the Soviet Union, Strategic Defense Initiative, Russia-United States cooperation, disarmament, hyperpowers, detente, commercialization of space activities, arms race, space policy of the United States, international relations

Abstract: The subject of this study is the terms, conditions and implementation of the recall of deputies in the period of the Soviet political system. The opinion of the Deputy had a limited distribution in the world and domestic practice, in the first quarter of the twentieth century. Came to power, the Bolsheviks introduced a recall of a Deputy in the Soviet electoral system, considering it an important form of direct democracy, revising the mechanism of interaction of deputies and voters. Contrary to initial plans, the recall of a Deputy in the Soviet reality, did not become a form of "genuine proletarian democracy" was implemented under the directives, top-down, and was not supported by any broad initiative of the population. However, the recall of the Deputy was not and meaningful way of dealing with opposition deputies, the Bolsheviks used the more cruel political practices to displace disloyal members of the councils.The study is based on the methodological principles of historicism, system analysis and objectivity. The principle of historicism allows us to consider the evolution of the institution of recall of deputies in the context of the historical era. Systems approach and structural-functional analysis allowed us to determine the mechanism of recall of deputies as well as the place of the Institute in the Soviet electoral system.The novelty of the research consists of a comprehensive study of the legal regulation of the grounds, conditions and procedure for the implementation of the recall of deputies at the stage of formation of the Soviet electoral system. For the first time introduced into scientific circulation sources helped to reveal the mechanism of functioning, the real value of the Institute and the problems of implementation of the recall of deputies in Soviet political practice.Until the mid-1920's the institution of recall of deputies could not find the real development in the Soviet legislation and practice. During the period of implementation of the policy of "revival" of the Soviets (1925-1929) opinion was considered as a measure of the revitalization of the Council deputies, in the Soviet law there were specified grounds, conditions and order of revocation. In practice, the recall of a Deputy remained unclaimed. The recall of a Deputy of the forms of direct will of the voter has become one of the forms of organizational-mass work of the Soviets. In the 1930s the recall of a Deputy was one of the elements of the mechanism of identification and suppression of "class enemies", but not widespread.

Keywords: displacement of the opposition deputies, initiative of the population, Bolsheviks, activation of the activity of Soviets, Soviet electoral system, imperative mandate, recall of deputies, grounds for recall, electoral mandate, Soviet political practice

Abstract: The subject of this research is the ideas of state unity and combating separatism, expressed in documents of the State Committee on the State of Emergency (GKChP of USSR). The author underlines the compulsory character of establishment of this agency. The main crisis trend of the Soviet statehood of the end of 1980’s – the beginning of 1990’s became the territorial disintegration of USSR and the threat to its collapse. The developed by various political powers projects of restructuring the Soviet State by means of decentralization of administration lead to transformation of the Soviet Union into confederative institution, which legitimized capture of authority by the union republics as violation of the Constitution of USSR. The main goals of formation of GKChP reflected in its documents: “Declaration of the Soviet leadership”, “Address to the Soviet people”, “Appeal to the leaders of states and governments, and UN General Secretary”, and others. These acts list the reasons of the weakening of unity of USSR, as well as defines the measures on overcoming the separatist trends. The scientific novelty consists in attraction of the materials, which were insufficiently involved into the study of the needs of history of state and law, as well as teachings on state and law. The accessible documental heritage of GKChP allows concluding that the key goal of formation of this agency consisted in retention of the territorial integrity of the county, which also defines its “political face”. Despite the established stereotypes, the Communist component in ideology of GKChP was not as high; it was rather the expression of political will of the group of conservatively oriented Soviet leaders. The failure of GKChP accelerated the disintegration of USSR, and allowed assessing the idea of retention of the unified state as reactionary on the official level. Perhaps partially because of this, the agreement between Russia, Ukraine, and Belarus signed on December 8, 1991 that practically liquidated the Soviet Union, did not cause the tangible resonance in society.

Keywords: Sovereignization , State of emergency, Political crisis, Centripetal trends, Centrifugal trends, Separatism, Territorial integrity, State unity, State Committee on the State of Emergency, USSR

Abstract: The subject of this research is the reasons and conditions of mass cancellation (cessation) of the election results of the winter of 1924/25, which was a unique event in the Soviet political history. The established within historiography position on this matter, as a result of high level of absenteeism of population and formalization of electoral process, must be subjected to significant amendment. The causes of mass cancellation of the elections should be examined in the context of opposition inside the party, as well as socioeconomic and political development of the country. Essential factors, which justified the declaration of a “new course” and cancellation of elections, became the strive of grouping in party leadership that insisted in implementation of the more liberal course (in contradiction of the one suggested by L. Trotsky) for ensuring the advantage in retention of power alongside the support of population. The scientific novelty is substantiated by the introduction into the discourse of the new sources and innovative interpretation of the events associated with the mass cancellation of the elections of 1924, as well as development of the Soviet electoral system. The author underlines the transformation of the electoral model, characterized by the weakening of party-state pressure upon population and implementation of the limited alternativeness. The common electoral practice in the late 1920’s was the involvement of broad range of urban and rural population in the elections, free nomination and discussion of the candidates, requirements and mandates to the new Councils. The new reality became the rejection from the formal semi-mandatory voting for previously approved lists of candidates. Within the framework of the achieved consensus on the elections of the late 1920’s, the country’s leadership was able to expand the trust towards the authorities; the population received the opportunity of a direct dialogue with the government, as well as the ability to delegate their representatives and voice their demands.

Keywords: weakening of administrative pressure, change of electoral model, population support, formalization of electoral process, high absenteeism, inner-party opposition, Soviet electoral campaign, cancellation of elections, free nomination of candidates, requirements of population

Abstract: Based on the primary sources this article analyzed the complex of measures conducted by the Soviet leadership regarding the changes in social structure of the Communist Party over the period of 1920’s. The author examines the crisis phenomena in the party, which became evident in the early 1920’s, as well as determines their causes and consequences. The article explores the process of formulation of decisions by the supreme leadership of the Russian Communist Party (Bolsheviks) – All-Union Communist Party of Bolsheviks aimed at overcoming of the crisis phenomena in the party. It is defined that the key task of the actions taken in this direction consisted in strengthening of the social foundation of authority as the basis of domestic political stability. The author reveals the conceptual content of the process and forms of its manifestation along with the content and goals of particular measures of regulatory character pertaining to transformation of the social composition of the Communist Party, including purges of the party, “Lenin’s summon” into the party, as well as development of coarse criteria of formation of party’s composition, etc. The conclusion is made that the crucial consequence of the complex of measures taken in 1920’s on changing the social composition of the party, became the intensively developing process of division of the party members according to social estates – bureaucratic principle, creation of workforce potential of the government.

Keywords: Communist Party, Ideological dissension, Social classes, Nomenclature, Bureaucracy, Social composition, Lenin’s summon, Purge, Ruling party, Bolsheviks

Abstract: The subject of this research is the United States  foreign policy doctrine in relation to Afghanistan and states of the Soviet Central Asia, which undergone a drastic transformation in the end of the XX – beginning of the XXI century due to geopolitical changes, associated with the collapse of the Soviet Union and the end of the Cold War. The conceptual structuring of Zbigniew Brzezinski defined content of the US foreign policy doctrine; and its major priority consisted in the attempt to establish the unipolar world and reconstitute the “neocolonial” system under the new circumstances. The main conclusion of this work consists in the scientifically substantiated positions on the fact that after the military Operation Desert Storm, the United Stated conducted the utilitarian policy in Central Asia and Afghanistan, which suggested the achievement of certain results within the framework of implemented foreign policy concept at minimum costs. Since the mid 1990’s, the United States established the “foundation” for the future “strategic breakthrough” in the region, the prerequisite for which were the economic interests, activation of the competitors, as well as the growing “Islamic threat”.

Keywords: political history, Central Asian region, evolution of foreign policy, US foreign policy, milestones in foreign policy, historical and political analysis, US geopolitical interests, US Afghan policy, US Central Asian Policy, US foreign policy priorities

Abstract: This article analyzes the socio-political moods of Komsomol members over the period of 1934-1936 in the following aspects: assessment of the work of country’s leadership, perception of party’s policy in the village, relation to assassination of S. M. Kirov, and cancellation of the ration stamp. The main sources for this research became the unpublished archive materials from the State Archives of Socio-Political History of Tambov Oblast and Voronezh Oblast. In Komsomol’s history of this little-studied period, the author observes the consistent connection between the economic situation of the country and political attitudes of the youth. The theory of nationalization of Komsomol, according to which Komsomol is considered a peculiar Soviet “youth ministry” or interlink between the state and the youth, became basic for examination of the historical and Komsomol issues. The study of the public moods of the members of Komsomol allows evaluating the socio-cultural phenomenon of Komsomol more objectively. The scientific novelty consists in reframing of the controversial socio-political attitudes of the youth. The author concludes that a significant part of Komsomol members assessed the situation in the country rather critically. But it was dangerous to openly demonstrate such attitude due to the possibility of repressions by the government. The author notes that the mechanisms of repressions were used inside the Komsomol organizations during the mid-1930’s.

Keywords: Political control, Public moods, Enemies of the state, Bread procurements, Ration stamp, Opposition, Repressions, Communist Party, Collectivization, Komsomol

Abstract: The paper is devoted to the curious phenomenon of the Russian Civil War - uprisings of workers against the dictatorship of proletariat, namely, rebellions of mining population of the Urals against the Soviets in the spring and summer of 1918. One of the largest anti-Bolshevik rebellions of mining population in the Urals occurred in June 1918 in the village of Polevskoi factory, located 54 miles south-west of Yekaterinburg. These events are poorly described both in Soviet and modern Russian historiography. Based on the archive documents, memoirs and newspapers, the author reconstructs the events of the mutiny of workers of Polevskoy factory. The paper examines the complex of reasons, which provoked the mutiny against Bolsheviks. The paper also describes consequences of the mutiny, including comparison of the number of victims of red terror with the number of victims of white terror in Polevskoy factory. The author makes a conclusion about the need for national reconciliation and establishment of the general monument to the victims of the Russian Civil War in Polevskoy.

Keywords: Bolsheviks, worker movement, white terror, uprising, red terror, insurgency, the Urals, Civil war, Kolchak, Socialist Revolutionaries

Abstract: The subject of this research is the evolution of political relations between the state and Kozakdom in the XVI – the beginning of the XIX centuries, when Russia was turning into a major Eurasian state, as well as the foundations of its Imperial policy were establishing. The goal of this work consists in determination of the characteristic features and specificities of the main stages of the history of these relations, when throughout the three centuries there was a complex process of integration of Kazakdom into the state sociopolitical structure as the “service social class”. The main method of this research lies in the historical approach which suggests the study of the sociopolitical phenomena and events through their origin and evolution. The author makes a conclusion that the history of political relations between the state and Kozakdom going through number of stages, evolved from “free union” to “class service”. As the result, by the beginning of the XIX century, Kazakdom was definitively assigned as the military-service class of the Russian Empire, the inner life and service of which was fully regulated by the authorities.

Keywords: State, Russian army, Kazaks , Russian Empire, Military-service class, Kazak circle, Kazak army, Political relations, Sate policy, Kazakdom

Abstract: The object of this research is the most resonant and exerted significant influence upon the establishment of public opinion in separate countries publications in major publishers of the continental Western Europe in 1970’s, pertaining to measures taken by the executive and legislative authorities of FRG in the state period, which are aimed at neutralization of threat to the Western German society and government that emanates from the left wing radical terrorist organization “Red Army Faction”. The author gives special attention to the development of the fundamental direction of the publicistic thought that touches upon confrontation between the state and the terrorist; he also analyzes the assessment of this fight given by the print mass media in FRG, France, Italy, Switzerland, and Netherlands, attempting to pursue regularities of the journalistic reasoning. For this research the publications of the 1970’s on the topic of the fight between the government of FRG and “Red Army Faction organization” have been selected in the following German publishers: “Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung”, “Die Welt”, “Bild”, “Die Zeit”, “Frankfurter Rundschau”, “Der Spiegel”, as well as in French, Italian and Swiss newspapers. The main conclusion consists in the establishment of the concrete regularities in the nature of the articles of the informational printed materials and their assessments, given to the anti-terroristic campaigns conducted by the law enforcement agencies of FRG, as well as to the decisions of the Western German judicial system with regards to “Red Army Faction” terrorists.

Keywords: Rights and freedoms, Journalism, Public opinion, Counterterrorism, Left wing radicalism, Western Europe, FRG, Terrorism, Red Army Faction, Mass media

Abstract: This article makes an attempt to comprehensively evaluate the style of the work Komsomol organizations of the 1950’s and its impact upon the political culture of Soviet youth. In the author’s opinion, the study of the political culture of the society during one of the pivotal stages of historical development alongside the clarification of the factors influencing its formation, creates the prerequisites for the establishment of high culture of political relations as a sign of civil society, as well as for their rationalization and intellectualization.  This material increases its relevance due to the 100th anniversary of the Communist Union of Youth. Komsomol is being viewed as a peculiar Soviet “ministry of youth”, a so-called interlink between the government and the youth. The research demonstrates that many negative trends in life of the union have not been determined even at the end of a decade. The triumph of bureaucratic tendencies in Komsomol contributed into manifestations of nihilism within the youth environment, youth’s disbelief in their own strength, as well as indifference towards everything. The style of the Komsomol activity encouraged the entrenchment of double standards among youth, the difference between the words and actions, official and daily behavior. At the same time, the author notes the rise of tendencies which overall played a positive role in formation of the youth’s political culture in the life of Komsomol, such as: strengthening of the elements of self-governance; riddance of the campaigns against “public enemy”; criticism of welfare mentality; rejection from the practice of mass transference of Komsomol personnel; consideration of age peculiarities of the youth; increase of attention towards organization of leisure among the members of Komsomol and the youth.

Keywords: Communist Party of the Soviet Union, Late Stalinism, Khrushchev thaw, Khrushchev, Inner-union work, Bureaucracy, Double standards, Political culture, Komsomol, Youth

Abstract: This article analyzes the issues in studying the practical activity of the British analytical (think) centers in light of transformation of the state policy from Keynesian social democracy to free market (since 1970’s). The subject of the research is the UK think centers which act as “mediators” between the informed public opinion and political and government institutions. In the first part of the article, the author examines the problem of terminology of the “think centers”, as well as definition of these groups in the context of British politics of the XX century. In the second part, the author reviews the genesis of the think centers in UK, as well as the theoretical and practical aspects of their work. The following conclusions are made: there is no unified and accurate definition of the “think centers”; an opinion about the recent appearance of the thinks centers in UK is false; the work of the think centers is aimed at influencing the opinion of the establishment, and the provision of information for making the current decisions in the area of public policy.

Keywords: Definition, State policy, Political solutions, UK, Analytical institute, Think center, Public opinion, NIESR, PEP, RIIA

Abstract: The subject of this research is the lobbying in Great Britain. A special attention is given to the close connection between the promotion of private interests by the high rank officials of the British governments and the corruption scandals. The author thoroughly examines the legal frameworks of the collaboration on the Royal servants with the representatives of major corporations, a so-called, actively developing practice of “rotating doors”. The law on transparency of lobbying is being analyzed; the conclusion is made about its inability to improve openness of the relationship between the authorities and the business in the United Kingdom. In addition to that, the author demonstrates a number of examples typical for the unbalanced lobbyism. Among the main conclusions are the following: lobbyism in Great Britain is tightly linked to the manifestations of corruption; British mass media is filled with headlines on the controversial actions of one or another politician; the acting legal frameworks of the collaboration between the lobbyist and the officials cannot provide any notable restrictions on the lawlessness of the reputable economic constituents; the fundamental law regulating lobbying in the United Kingdom requires significant changes.

Keywords: history, lobbying, Great Britain, interest representation, Parliament, Government, regulation, corruption, transparency, review

Abstract: The established within USSR system of administration and regulation of public relations in the Soviet society represented a conglomerate of the Communist Party and the government. The Soviet state acting as a mechanism in realization of ideological and political decisions of the Russian Communist Party-the Central Committee of the All-Union Communist Party of Bolsheviks-the Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union and its legislative activity in its foundation was determined by the Political Bureau of the Central Committee. At the same time, the Communist Party did not possess official constitutional authorities for decreeing the normative obligatory for the entire population acts, thus was initially using a particular form of legalization of its decisions – joint acts of the Party and the state. This article reveals the place and role of the joint orders of the Party’s Central Committee and the Soviet State of normative legal character as the means of broadcasting into society the politico-ideological decisions of the party, as well as the combined efforts of the party and state apparatus towards the determination and solution of the questions of managing the social, political, and economic processes.  

Keywords: Russian history, history of Russian law, History and ideology, Chronology, History of the RCP (B) -VKP (b) -CPSU, sources of law, sources of knowledge of law, joint regulations, the nature of the political and legal acts, especially Soviet law

Abstract: The subject of this research is the cooperation of the non-proletarian layers of city population with the government during the electoral campaigns of the 1920’s. A retrospective analysis of the mechanism of cooperation between the government and the population during the electoral campaigns of the 1920’s promotes understanding of the modern electoral issues in the post-Soviet space, and thus, in addition to the scientific significance, there is also an important political one. The 1920’s represent a unique period within the electoral history of Russia, which marked the formation of behavioral stereotypes of the population at the election, and the mechanisms of cooperation between the people and the government. Based on the archive materials, the article analyzes the number of the electoral body of the non-proletarian portion of the city population, dynamics of the activeness of participation of citizens in the elections, peculiarities of the formation of electoral behavior, as well as the problems of cooperation between city dwellers and the government. The research demonstrates that the non-proletarian layers of the city population comprised a significant portion within the electoral body of the cities of 1920’s, numerically exceeding in the smaller provincial cities.

Keywords: non-proletarian groups of the population, the election campaigns, the protests, the administrative pressure, the absenteeism, The town councils, The Bolsheviks, The electoral behavior, the disloyal behavior, the rules of representation