Artificial intelligence – phraseologization of the illusion of truth in the English language

Belozerova Ekaterina Yurievna ORCID: 0000-0001-5430-274X PhD in Philology Associate Professor; Department of Foreign Languages and Intercultural Communication; Financial University under the Government of the Russian Federation 125167, Russia, Moscow, Leningradsky, 49/2, office 319 ebelozerova@hotmail.com Other publications by this author

Introduction

This article is a continuation of the research, the results of which are reflected in the article "Modern phraseology of the English language: the world of fantasies, dreams and daydreams" ^[1]. According to the data Dictionary.com In 2023, the number of requests for the word hallucinate "hallucination" increased by 46% compared to 2022 ^[2]. In December 2023, the number of hits on the topic of artificial intelligence in the Google search engine amounted to more than two billion. Currently, everything related to the development of technology attracts the attention of people of different ages and professions, which leads not only to the popularization and overuse of certain words in speech, but also to the endowment of words already existing in the language with additional meaning, thereby sometimes transforming them into a number of terms.

So, in 2023, in the English dictionaries Cambridge, Collins, Merriam-Webster, the word hallucinate to its original meaning "to see hallucinations as a result of illness or taking narcotic drugs" acquires the additional meaning of "glitch, make an error" when it comes to artificial intelligence ^[3]. It should be noted that the word hallucinate acquires additional meaning only in the context of a program malfunction, namely artificial intelligence: artificial intelligence hallucinates (artificial intelligence fails). At the same time, this failure is unexpected, unpredictable, without any intention, as if "an accidental lie passed off as the truth."

In December 2023 Dictionary.com chooses the word hallucinate "hallucination" as the Word of 2023 ^[4], taking into account mainly its additional meaning, namely: "(machine programs) create false information contrary to the user's intentions and present it as truthful and factual" ^[2].

Grant Barrett, Head of the Lexicography Department Dictionary.com In an interview with USA TODAY, he notes that the word hallucinate in the technology space reflects other words such as spam "spam" and virus "virus".

"It takes an older word with a different meaning but gives a new technology spirit," Barrett said. "It also represents this unfortunate discrepancy between what we want to happen with technology – we want it to be perfect and great solve problems – yet it's never quite there. ... It's messier than we plan it to be" ^[4]. In his explanation, Mr. Barrett emphasizes that the word hallucinate is not new, but it gets an additional meaning that literally reflects the spirit of technology "gives a new technology spirit". The acquired additional meaning of "false information as true" represents an unfortunate discrimination "an annoying discrepancy" between what developers want to achieve from technology and what happens – namely, they want artificial intelligence to be perfect and solve problems perfectly, but this does not always happen.

Despite the fact that the meaning of "glitch, error" in the word hallucinate is officially registered in leading English dictionaries by the end of 2023, its existence and use in the field of technology was noted in the last century. According to G. Barrett, in the 1970s, scientists trying to make computers read human handwriting used the word "hallucination" to refer to erroneous computer readings.

«Even back then they understood, 'oh we're going to borrow this term that means to see things that aren't really there, because that's what's happening with our computer stuff that we're building» ^[4] (=Even then, they realized, "Oh, we're going to borrow this term, which means seeing things that don't really exist, because that's what happens to our computers that we create.")

As G. Barrett notes, the word "hallucinate" originally referred to the vocabulary of technological jargon, long before it received a nomination as the Word of 2023, and now technology professionals are moving away from it because this word seems too human to them. By "humanity", Mr. Barrett probably means the following: 1) hallucinate as the Word of 2023 is undoubtedly a human choice; 2) the program can give erroneous information only as a result of a technical failure, without any bias or subjective attitude.

It should be noted that in an interview, G. Barrett explains exactly how the word of the year is chosen: "Colleagues share new words with one another in a group chat as they rise to popularity throughout the year. At the end of the year, they gather up the words, pare the list down, then compare the final contenders by search data" ^[4] (= colleagues share new words with each other in a group chat, the popularity of which has been growing throughout the year. At the end of the year, they write out the words, shorten the list, and then compare the final applicants according to the search data). Thus, the "humanity" of the word hallucinate is based primarily on what is initially a person's choice, and this choice later, presented in the form of a word, becomes a theme. Public interest in a particular topic can be artificially created, popularized and involve more and more people.

Artificial intelligence became the topic of 2023, and the word hallucinate acquires the additional meaning of "false information as true" or "unintentional lies passed off as the truth" and becomes the word of 2023. It should be noted that artificial intelligence and hallucinate are considered in these nominations solely based on their terminological meanings.

artificial intelligence ^[5] - the capacity of computers or other machines to exhibit or simulate intelligent behavior; the field of study concerned with this (= the ability of computers or other machines to demonstrate or simulate intelligent behavior; an area of research related to this).

hallucinate ^[6] - a computer system produces false information (= the computer system produces false information).

The leading lexicographer of the dictionary Dictionary.com Kory Stamper notes that one of the first documented uses of the word "hallucination" in computer science dates back to a 1971 research paper. The article was devoted to teaching computers to "read and understand" handwritten text. This term, including the verb form, began to appear in the context of machine learning and artificial intelligence by the 1990s^[2]. The terminological phrase artificial intelligence hallucinates is noted in a number of scientific studies by foreign authors: M. Salvagno, F.S. Taccone, A.G. Gerli (2023) ^[7], H. Patel (2024) ^[8] and others. A.E. Korotkov writes the following in a monograph on research in the field of artificial life, artificial intelligence and virtual worlds: "the most traditional computer programs either work perfectly or don't work at all. Probably, everyone has faced a situation when a computer program encounters a problem and suddenly stops working at all or "goes crazy". In such situations, programmers say that the program has "tipped over" - this analogy is surprisingly accurate, because this situation is similar to when a tall, shaky stack of some things sways, falls to the floor and turns into chaos" ^[9].

The human mind, unlike artificial intelligence, can understand chaos not only literally as scattered things, but also as a state of confusion, a difficult situation and an attempt to resolve it, while deliberately resorting to providing false information or partially concealing the truth. And in this context, the word hallucinate is an alternative, has Latin roots and comes from the Latin word hallūcinātus, which meant “wandered mentally” (= mentally wandering) ^[2].

Phraseologization of the illusion of truth

At first glance, the word hallucinate may seem like an unexpected choice as a language unit to denote an inaccurate result. The meaning of the word hallucinate can be interpreted as an attempt to find and present the truthful and only correct answer (if we are talking about artificial intelligence) or intended to confuse, confuse and deceive (if there is a human factor). Thus, the concept of "truth" directly depends on the sign of "humanity".

Questions of phraseological cheating highlighted by many researchers in scientific publications on materials of the Russian language A. V. Gritsenko (2008) ^[10], Shestakova N. L. (2012) ^[11], Faizullin, L. D. (2016) ^[12]; French language Narzullaeva S. I. (2014) ^[13]; the English language I. E. Fedyunina (2009) ^[14], Vladimir Gurin (2015) ^[15], A. G., Karipidis, M. A. Baturina (2019) ^[16].

The evolution of the meaning of the word hallucinate is a metaphorical extension, which undoubtedly enriches the language. And if, subsequently, it takes the form of a stable phrase with complicated semantics, which is not formed according to the generating structural and semantic models of variable combinations ^[17], then it will be possible to state the enrichment of the phraseology of the English language.

Modern English is characterized by the development of phraseological meaning in terminological combinations. The present study shows that at the moment there are no phraseological units in the English language, the component of which are the words artificial, intelligence, hallucinate. The material for further research is phraseological units that are recorded in modern dictionaries of the English language (Dictionary.com , Oxford English Dictionary, Cambridge Dictionary of English, Farlex Dictionary of idioms, Collins English Dictionary, Merriam-Webster, Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English) and the meaning of which expresses the deliberate distortion of the information presented, which is characterized by the factor of "humanity".

So, in English there are a number of phraseological units, the meaning of which is identical to the meaning of "false information as true" or "an unintentional lie passed off as the truth" (= hallucinate). For example, hallucinate = go off the rails:

Sometimes, generative AI goes off the rails ^[18] (= sometimes generative artificial intelligence (AI) fails). The phraseology go off the rails ^[6] (= to start behaving in a way that is not generally acceptable, especially dishonestly or illegally) – to get out of standing or literally fly off the rails (behave inappropriately, dishonestly and illegally, violating the law) is used to indicate the unpredictability of the result. Moreover, the Farlex Dictionary of Idioms includes the abbreviation AI in phraseological units and provides the following explanation of the meaning: an abbreviation for "artificial intelligence," the ability of a computer to perform

functions thought to require intelligence or some form of decision making (=abbreviation "artificial intelligence", the ability of a computer to perform functions that are considered to require intelligence or some form of decision-making) ^[19].

The phrase AI hallucination can be considered the result of a program failure (spam) or exposure from outside (virus). But despite the source of the impact, the result will be erroneous and incorrect. There is no malicious intent in the action of artificial intelligence, unlike a person who, in turn, is inclined to appeal with information, passing off the obviously false as the truth.

For example, the term fake news "fake news" has become frequently used since US President Donald Trump popularized this expression, repeatedly using it to refer to negative coverage of himself in the press. Fake news, also known as "junk news" or "pseudo-news", is a type of yellow journalism or propaganda that consists of deliberate misinformation or hoaxes spread through traditional media or online social networks. The relevance of fake news has increased in post-truth politics and paved the way for new expressions such as alternative facts, "alternative facts", first introduced by American political adviser to the President Kellyanne Conway in 2017. Thus, fake news as erroneous information can be understood as alternative facts alternative facts, where the alternative implies the possibility of being attributed to the truth.

The phrase fake news is treated differently in modern English dictionaries. Cambridge English Dictionary Dictionaries, Dictionary.com , Collins English Dictionary treats fake news as a noun (= false stories that appear to be news, spread on the internet or using other media, usually created to influence political views or as a joke / false stories that look like news spread on the Internet or using other media mass media, usually created to influence political views or as a joke) ^[6,2,20]. The Merriam-Webster English Dictionary classifies fake news as stable expressions ^[21], while the Farlex Dictionary of Idioms has included fake news in a number of phraseological units with the following meaning: fabricated news reports presented as authentic, they aim to drive web traffic to the providing website, they often have provocative headlines (= fabricated news reports passed off as authentic). Because these news stories seek to attract web traffic to the vendor's website, they often have provocative headlines ^[19].

It is possible to build the following sequence: fake news – alternative facts – false information – hallucination, the source of the latter is not so important (human or artificial intelligence), and most importantly the result, which can be interpreted and accepted as an alternative to the truth.

Let's consider a few phraseological units with the truth (=truth) component as an alternative to the hallucination value (=alternative facts):

The phraseology be economic with the truth (= not fully truthful; deceitful, often by manipulating language or omitting certain details) denotes not so much an error as a person's accuracy in choosing means of expression, with possible omission or non-coverage of complete information, which is considered manipulation ^[19].

I wouldn't trust him—everyone says he's economical with the truth (= I wouldn't trust him — everyone says he's economical with the truth) ^[19].

She asked repeated questions but only received answers which were at best economic with the truth, at worst deliberately designed to deceive (= She asked repeated questions, but received only answers that were at best economical with respect to the truth, and at worst intentionally designed to deceive) ^[20]. In this example, the phraseology is supplemented by a clarifying expression of a comparative nature at best – at worst to express the assumption of dishonesty, avoiding direct accusations of lying. In any case, there is an intention not to tell the whole truth.

Members of his profession are often economical with the truth (= Representatives of his profession are often stingy with the truth) ^[21]. In the example, the phraseology be economic with truth is used humorously to say that representatives of a certain (his) profession are telling lies, it is natural for them.

In total, the phraseology be economic with the truth is used if the speaker intentionally avoids truthful facts based on his own interests.

The phraseology stretch the truth (= to tell or explain something in such a way that, while not technically false, presents an exaggerated or misleading version of the truth) ^[19] is used to convey truthful information, perhaps with minor omissions, but on an exaggerated scale.

It would be stretching the truth to say that our company has been very successful, but we managed to get by for the past few years (= It would be an exaggeration to say that our company has achieved great success, but we have managed to cope over the past few years) ^[19].

He was accused of stretching the truth about how much he had helped in the project (= He was accused of exaggerating the truth about how much he helped in the project) ^[6]. In this example, the phraseology stretch the truth is used to denote not entirely honest human behavior in order to appear better than it really is.

He was stretching the truth to make the story more interesting (= He embellished the truth to make the story more interesting) ^[22]. Phraseology is used to understand that some details or facts in his story are not entirely correct and are used to attract attention or increase interest in the narrative.

So, there is some truth in the meaning of the phraseology stretch the truth, but some details can be omitted or added based on the subjective position of the speaker to exaggerate and scale the significance.

The saying half the truth is often a whole lie is used when hiding the truth, or some details, can mislead a person and this can be regarded as an outright lie.

I know you want to protect his feelings, but you really need to be honest with him. Half the truth is often a whole lie, you know (= I know you want to protect his feelings, but you really need to be honest with him. Half of the truth often turns out to be a whole lie, you know) ^[19]. The saying half the truth is often a whole lie emphasizes the importance of being completely honest, intentionally withholding information is tantamount to lying.

The Cambridge English Dictionary gives the noun a half-truth, the meaning of which is defined as a partially true statement intended to mislead. They do not have to fight a lie but a half-truth (= They need to fight not a lie, but a half-truth) ^[2].

In general, the meaning of the saying half the truth is often a whole lie and the noun a half-truth indicates the equation of half-truth to a lie.

The phraseology truth will out (= said to show that you believe the truth will always be discovered) ^[6] is used to express confidence that the truth will become known, despite all possible attempts to hide or embellish it. And no matter what attempts are made, the situation should be taken as it is: it is what it is – a phraseology that is used to summarize.

We're all imperfect human beings in an imperfect world. It is what it is (=We are all imperfect people in an imperfect world. That is, that is) ^[6]. The phraseology it is what it is says about the inevitability of the facts that the situation cannot be changed and it must be accepted.

It is what it is, without apology (= This is what it is, without apologies) ^[2]. The phraseology it is what it is is used to characterize a frustrating or difficult situation that, in a person's opinion, cannot be changed and that just needs to be accepted.

The matter is quite simple and perfectly clear, and the truth will come out in the end (= The case is quite simple and completely clear, and the truth will eventually come out) ^[6]. The phraseology truth will out conveys the speaker's confidence that the truth will always be revealed.

If all doubtful cases are adequately sampled, much of the truth will come out (= If all doubtful cases are carefully selected, most of the truth will come out) ^[6]. The Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English ^[21] defines the phraseology truth will out as a saying that says that even if you try to prevent people from learning something, they will eventually find out everything.

Thus, the phraseology truth will out emphasizes that the true facts of a situation will always and inevitably be known or discovered. While the phraseology it is what it is says the opposite, about humility and acceptance of the situation as it is.

The phraseology truth is stranger than fiction (= said when you want to emphasize that real events or things are sometimes stranger than imaginary ones) is used to explicate that the truth can sometimes be more surprising and less realistic than fiction ^[6].

I know it sounds unbelievable, but the truth is sometimes stranger than fiction (= I know it sounds incredible, but the truth is sometimes stranger than fiction) ^[6].

In our two-month trip around the world, we ran into long-lost relatives on three separate occasions, proving that truth is stranger than fiction (= In our two-month trip around the world, we met long-lost relatives three times, proving that the truth is stranger than fiction) ^[2]. The phraseology truth is stranger than fiction is used to convey the meaning that real life can be more wonderful than made-up fairy tales.

I tell you, sometimes truth is stranger than fiction (= I tell you, sometimes the truth is stranger than fiction) ^[19]. The phraseology truth is stranger than fiction is used to mean that real life is filled with bizarre, absurd or unlikely events that it is difficult to believe that they are not fictional.

As a result, the phraseology truth is stranger than fiction suggests that you should not sometimes falsify, invent or omit some details, since the real state of affairs can be very surprising and unexpected in itself.

Conclusion

For the development of phraseology and its enrichment, it is important to monitor changes in the vocabulary of the language. The English language is developing and words are being supplemented with new meanings. An analysis of the use of the terminological phrase artificial intelligence hallucinates has shown that so far only one phraseological dictionary has recorded this linguistic unit as a phraseological unit. Examples of the use of individual words (artificial, intelligence, hallucinate) as part of other phraseological units have not been found.

The article provides an analysis of five phraseological units with the truth component in examples of the use of "truth" for narration. In each case, the use of phraseology expresses the intention of distorting the truthfulness and honesty of the speaker, which is considered as a factor of "humanity". The phraseologization of the illusion of truth is a specter of its interpretation: from a small omission, exaggeration to deception; while the metaphorical meaning of the terminological phrase states deception as a technical failure.