Abstract: The subject of this research is the concept of political public sphere considered in the works of J. Habermas. The article traces the emergence of the phenomenon of political publicity, which in Habermas’ opinion, initially appears as a requirement of the developing economy of Western countries. The political public sphere affected the formation of Anglo-Saxon model of the state that implied the primate of law and rational reasoning, as well as public discussion of the relevant economic and political questions. In accordance with the indicated paradigm of political thoughts, the appropriate in the state must coincide with the just. Methodology lies in examination of the works of Habermas, including the untranslated into the Russian language and relatively unknown in Russia. The main conclusion consists in the statement that Habermas believes that the legislation in democratic state must represent not a result of political will, but based on the rational agreement of all actors of the free market. Public sphere, therewith, is called to bring more transparency into the democratic process of decision-making in the state.

Abstract: The subject of this research is the ideas of N. A. Berdyaev, S. L. Frank, P. B. Struve, P. I. Novgorodtsev, I. A. Ilyin; all of these philosophers were typical representatives of so-called current conservative liberalism in Russia. Particular attention is paid to the development of the idea of freedom in the conservative liberalism, since it is the conservative thinkers who turned their attention to the important issue of the relationship between politics and culture, which was not adequately covered  in the liberal political philosophy. The main conclusion of the study consists in the fact that the development of the concepts of realization of individual freedom in the state was in a constant dialogue between the liberal and conservative ideologies within the Russian political philosophy.At the same time, liberalism and conservatism are not opposed to each other and the idea of freedom was developing within the framework of the so-called "conservative liberalism". In history of political thought, the idea of realization of individual freedom in the state was not opposed by conservatism, but rather radicalism, while conservative and liberal movements in Russia complemented each other for the most part.

Abstract: The object of this research is the main definitions of the social theory of one of the most reputable contemporary German philosophers Jürgen Habermas that received a title of “deliberative democracy”. Special attention is given to the examination of liberalism, which tends to exaggerate the role of the negative individual freedoms that in turn, leads to unacceptability of the so-called “Western individualism”, predominantly within the Eastern societies. At the same time, entire legal power of the Western democracies ranges itself on the side of personal interests of an individual. The author thoroughly explores the question on how the instrumentalist understanding of the principles of democracy sharply contradicts the republican “variant” of democratic freedoms. The author’s main contribution consists in an attempt to determine the merits and flaws of the J. Habermas’ theory. The fact that the main positions of the theory of discursive democracy are substantiated fairly convincing id considered a positive side of the social philosophy of Habermas. However, the disadvantage of the concept of deliberative democracy consists in the fact that Habermas as an unconditional prerequisite accepts a postulate that all people are rational creatures, whose behavior is being strictly regulated by the rational principles expressed by the virtue of language.

Abstract: The subject of the research in the article are the ideas of law, state, freedom and democracy of the famous German philosopher Ernst Cassirer (1874-1945), which he considered in the overall context of the modern European spiritual and intellectual tradition. Special attention is paid to the notions of freedom and democracy that were essentially universal for Cassirer, as they are the common heritage of all European nations. The author also examines the following aspect of the topic: Cassirer did not create a systematic theory of the political, as it is customary in modern political science — economic and material factors the in society were not of big importance for him, but the increased interest in the search for "metaphysical" roots of any phenomenon of the social life makes Cassirer's political philosophy particularly informative and interesting.
Research methodology of this topic was a detailed study of a broad sources base — the original texts, most of which are not translated into Russian and are not particularly available and known in our country. Cassirer's philosophical reflections and research on the topic of the ideas of the state, rights, freedom, constitution developed in German intellectual and spiritual history, led him to the conclusion that these ideas are an integral part of the German culture, and not some "foreign", "imported" product of the Anglo-American or French spiritual and political traditions.

Abstract: This is the final article in a serious of articles including the last two articles (Parkhomenko, R. N.. The Concept of Freedom in Ancient and Medieval Philosophy // Philosophy and Culture. – 2013. – № 5. - P. 701 - 708; and Parkhomenko, P. N.. The Idea of Freedom at the Age of Renaissance and Modern Times // Philosophy and Culture. – 2014. – № 2. - P. 227 - 238) devoted to the genesis of the idea of freedom and liberalism in Western philosophy. In the present article Parkhomenko discusses associated concepts in the philosophy of the contemporary period. The research methodology includes both Russian and foreign sources as well as data collected by the author during scientific trainings at different German universities. The brief review of the origin and development of the idea of freedom in West European philosophy provided by the author in all his three articles demonstrates that the thoughts on human freedom permeates all periods of human spiritual history being the consequence and reflection of the actual historical situation in the society. The researcher also makes an attempt to systematize different branches of contemporary Western liberalism including utilitarianism, liberal equality and libertarianism. 

Abstract: The object of research is the concept of myth plays in philosophy of Ernst Cassirer: in the early 20-ies Cassirer became interested in ethnological researches about life, language and thinking of primitive societies in order to understand the basic laws of functioning of primitive thinking, which he defined as "mythical life form. " These studies led to the conclusion that Cassirer that even primitive rituals often do not even verbalized, had its own logic, however, is different from the logic of modern scientific and rational society. The method of research was the study of a large complex of works by E. Cassirer and monographs on the philosophy of Cassirer, including German. The main conclusions of the study is a statement of the fact that Cassirer was convinced that the myth as a form of life in ancient societies, as well as the myth of politics in modern society, indicates the existence of different fragments of the human world, that the people responsible for committing various errors decision-making and in their behavior.

Abstract: The subject of research is the evolution of romanticism in the German literature and philosophy, the main features and characteristics of romanticism were shown in process of romanticism are shown. The special attention is paid to specifics of typically German romanticism as spokesman of the main lines of the German mentality and national spirit. The author in detail considers such aspects of a subject as influence of romanticism in literature and art on political thought of Germany, and also the romanticism in practical policy which influenced development of a course of conservatism. Methodology of research is the appeal to heritage of the German romanticism - the author had opportunity long time to work at various universities and libraries in Germany. The main conclusions of the conducted research is the thought that use of concepts of nationalism and political mythology together with such "metaphysical" concepts as spirit, the soil, race, destiny, history, revival open theoretical essence and practical capacity of the current of the romanticism in Germany which passed evolution from literature to policy.

Abstract: In article democratic currents in English social thought of the XVII century in treatment of the brilliant domestic encyclopedic thinker B. N. Chicherin are shined. For today at us in the country it is rather low-studied area of the political philosophy, which studying as it is represented, can help development of own liberal concepts with modern Russia. B. Chicherin arguing on development of concepts of the state, the right and human freedom in intellectual history of mankind I believed that the state as institute of the public power, though connects society of individuals in a whole, but thus it shouldn't suppress freedom of his members. The person by the nature is a free being – about it English democrats of the XVII century wrote very much. Methodology of research was work with little-known texts, both domestic, and foreign. Work can be used when teaching a course of history of social philosophy or history of political doctrines. As a result of consideration of the main democratic ideas in England it is possible to notice XVII century that done English democrat publicists in the XVII century I was important and productive. As well as the first revolution in England, and works of Sydney, Garrington, Milton and Gaulle were that base, that initial stage in development of democratic theories of a state system, leaning on which already such known philosopher as, for example, John Locke, could create the integral and thought-over theory of the natural right and to become the founder of individual school in philosophy.

Abstract: The article is devoted to the prerequisites of Jurgen Habermas' theory of society as well as his idea of deliberative democracy that is based on the discursive agreement of all members of the society on vital social issues. Opposed to the classical interpretation of democracy, Habermas' consensus principle states that laws and regulations are legitimate not because they are mandatory for all individuals but because these laws and regulations are willingly accepted by all members of the society. In the classical theory of demoracy laws and regulations must be willingly accepted by individuals because they are just and fair, while Habermas' principle of justice is based on the democratic principle that these laws and regulations are accepted by all individuals concerned. Therefore, grounds for accepting a law or regulation are created not by practical reason or theoretical research but by open discussion of all members of the society. As an addition to the article, you shall also find Jurgen Habermas' brief biography and an extensive list of references. 

Abstract: This article looks at the life of Boris Chicherin (1828-1904) with respect to his ideological and philosophical development. The role of religion in the development of his concept of liberalism is also discussed. The method and scope of the philosophical interests of Chicherin, a well-known Russian lawyer, philosopher and public figure, can be best described as "scientific metaphysics" because he always wanted to look beyond the boundaries of positivism and empiricism as well as the national religious and mystical traditions. Chicherin believed that any common principles can and should be explained by experience and that the real world needs be illuminated by the "light" of philosophical truths. He assigned a special role to logic and science as aides to our perception of the world. The article details the methodological aspects of Chicherin's philosophy, which can be referred to as "metaphysical universalism", and considers his thoughts on freedom and law.

Abstract: The article is devoted to the ideas of a famous Russian political philosopher and jurist Boris Nikolaevich Chicherin (1828 - 1904) about state, civil society, definition of law and separation of powers. Today, when researchers talk about Boris Chicherin's philosophical legacy, they usually stress out that Chicherin was one of the founders of Russian legal science. Chichern wrote a number of works directly or indirectly connected with the issues of law, politics, history and theory of state. The cornerstone of his philosophy of law was the conception of human as a free personality. Chicherin political credo was the union between the liberal state and strong power - this is what Chichern viewed as the particular feature of the Russian State. For Chicherin legal order in a state was very important. Such legal order must limit the sphere of political power in all its form, either it is a democratic republic or monarchy. Chichern warned against the despotism of crowd and believed the principle of the ruling majority as the excuse of dictatorship. However, based on A. Valitsky, this Chicherin's position was not contradictory to political liberalism. Chicherin could have been described as a 'typical liberal of the epoch when liberalism and democracy were not inseparable and could even oppose to one another'. 

Abstract: The author of the article traces back the formation and development of the idea of freedom in Antique, Medieval and New European Philosophies up to Descartes' ideas. The analysis shows that modern definition of the ide of freedom as well as the ideas of law, justice and civil society are based on Antique and Medieval philosophies. Following philosophies and political studies only develop theoretical categories and application of these categories in formation of modern democratic states. 

Abstract: The author of the article studies Nikolay Berdyaev's ideas about political and cultural diversity of Russia and Germany, emphasis is being made at the comparison of the 'Russian idea' and German 'Sonderweg'. Berdyav expressed his interest in this topic in his early work 'Fate of Russia' which he wrote right after the Bolsheviks took over the government. Tragid events which had long-term consequences not only for our country but also for the whole world made Berdyev to think about the issues of Russian psychology, nationality and psychology of war and politics. 
Berdyaev also made an attempt to define the 'soul of Russia' which, in fact, is quite a contradictory and antinomic phenomenon. This contradictory and antinomic nature of Russian mind was reflected in the ideology of Slavophiles and classical literature. 
As a result, th author shows that comparing Russian mentality with European style of thinking in his works, Berdyaev stressed out the rationality of a Westerner and  spontaneity and chaos of the Russian soul. Based on Berdyaev, Russian style of thinking is 'weakened with the rationalism' and focuses on details, while Russian philosophers are interested in the nature of the problem in general. Russian person tires not only to describe and to set a problem, but also to solve it no matter how abstract or complicated it is. 

Abstract: The article is devoted to the theory of political romanticism created by a famous German philosopher Carl Schmitt (1888-1985). Today Schmitt is famous in Russia as a theorist of state and follower of authoritarian methods in state policy. In his early works he studied the term 'romanticism' and gave his own evaluation of this phenomenon. Today Schmitt's ideas are very popular because he tried to define not only the psychological roots of the term 'romanticism', but also to discover research potentials and practical consequences arising out of that term and playing an important role in social life and politics. The author shows that romantic world perception had a profound influence on spiritual development of Germany and was widely used for creation and theoretical justification of the totalitarian regime in that country. In our turn, we can see that romanticism was typical for Russian politics, too, which resulted in creation of a totalitarian regime in Russia last century. 

Abstract: The article discusses the role of the value of the national idea in Russia. The first part of the article shows the genesis of the concept of “Russian idea” in Russian philosophical tradition. The concept of the Russian idea was developed and put into circulation Solovyov Vl.S. in 1887-1888. His speech on “Russian idea” in 1888 in Paris defined the “meaning the existence of Russia in world history” as a mediator in the spiritual unity of East and West. The Eurasianism movement arose in 1921 further develops the concept of the Russian idea as an expression of identity of Russia in the world as a healthy spirit energy opposed to the traditions and foundations of Western Europe. Taking the traditional among the Russian intellectuals idea of the interrelation and confrontation of “Slavophiles” and “Westerners” in Russian history, the followers of the Eurasianism tried to give their philosophical concepts ideological form. The key moment of the study is in comparison of the role of the concept of national idea in Russia and Germany. The author also provides current opinions on the concept by both Russian and foreign intellectuals.