Relationships between personality traits and experience of loneliness

Levchuk Il'ya Aleksandrovich independent researcher 123290, Russia, Moscow region, Moscow, Shelepikhinskaya embankment, 34k2, kv 1141 levchukeli@gmail.com Other publications by this author

Introduction

Loneliness acts as a serious socio-psychological problem of our time. Thus, it has been established that "loneliness is a widespread and serious public health problem due to its impact on health, well-being and longevity" ^[1]. Moreover, according to a recent assessment by experts of the World Health Organization, loneliness is fraught with the same (or even higher) risks of early mortality as smoking 15 cigarettes a day, alcohol dependence, obesity and air pollution ^[2]. These data highlight the extent to which feelings of loneliness are associated with negative consequences for physical and mental health.

The concept of psychological well-being in science is interpreted as one of the key indicators of a person's mental health. In particular, I. V. Dubrovina notes that psychological well-being can be understood as an indicator of a person's psychological health, which is one of the most important states of personality and is associated with a person's moral development ^[3]. At the same time, modern research highlights the dual role of this phenomenon. Thus, G. V. Soldatova and S. M. Shingaev point out that, unlike other types of well–being, psychological well-being is both a goal and a means to achieve other goals, in particular, to improve the functioning of the individual in almost any activity ^[4]. In other words, a high level of psychological well-being not only reflects a harmonious state of personality, but also serves as a condition for achieving other life goals.

According to the theory of self–determination by E. Deci and R. Ryan, one of the fundamental factors of psychological health is the satisfaction of basic psychological needs - in autonomy, competence and connectedness with other people. Indeed, the satisfaction of basic psychological needs is a necessary condition for personal growth and well-being ^[5]. Empirical research confirms that satisfaction of basic needs is directly related to subjective well-being. The basic needs for competence, autonomy, and attachment must be satisfied throughout an individual's life in order to experience an enduring sense of integrativity and well-being, or “eudemonia” ^[6]. Competence is associated with the feeling of being able to cope with solving problems in various circumstances ^[12]. The need for autonomy is expressed in a person's desire to feel like the author of their own actions; the need for competence is associated with the desire to interact effectively with the environment; the need for belonging reflects the desire to establish strong and supportive social ties. The need for autonomy does not coincide with the need for independence, selfishness, or simply freedom of choice ^[13]. Thus, providing opportunities to meet basic human needs – a sense of autonomy, competence, and belonging – is seen as a necessary condition for a person's psychological well-being.

Social intelligence is another significant variable that affects the quality of life and success of an individual. Social intelligence is understood as a set of abilities that ensure effective social interaction. As A. I. Savenkov emphasizes, developed social intelligence underlies a person's ability to successfully build social interactions, determines the willingness and ability to work creatively in a team, be a leader and a follower, and ensures social competence ^[7]. The presence of a high level of social intelligence has a positive effect on various spheres of life. Thus, according to experts, developed social intelligence has a positive effect on human productivity and health. People with stronger social ties are more optimistic and positive than others, as a rule, less likely to encounter psychological problems and stress ^[8]. In other words, social intelligence contributes to successful social adaptation, professional realization, and mental health maintenance.

The opposite factor is hopelessness, which is a negative expectation about one's own future. In clinical psychology, hopelessness is considered as a cognitive sign closely related to depressive symptoms. The following definition is given: hopelessness is a negative expectation towards oneself and the future ^[9]. A high level of hopelessness is associated with a number of unfavorable psychological outcomes. In particular, it has been shown that hopelessness correlates with such adverse consequences as anxiety, depression, poor quality of life, self-harming (auto-aggressive) behavior, suicidal thoughts and tendencies ^[10]. These data indicate that the feeling of hopelessness is a serious risk factor for the mental well-being of an individual.

Thus, the analysis of modern research shows that the listed psychological phenomena – loneliness, psychological well–being, satisfaction of basic needs, social intelligence and hopelessness - play an important role in human life. The relevance of further study of these factors is due to their significant impact on mental health, quality of life and social functioning of the individual in modern conditions. An in-depth study of the interaction of these variables will make it possible to better understand the mechanisms of well-being and maladaptation formation, as well as to develop effective psychoprophylactic and corrective measures.

Research methods

The research methods used were the K. Riff Psychological Well-being Scale (RPWB), the N. Hall Social Intelligence Test modified by G. Rezapkina, the General Scale of Satisfaction of Basic Psychological Needs (BPNSS), the Beck Hopelessness Scale (BHS), and the Loneliness Questionnaire ^[11].

Selection

The study involved 216 respondents aged 19 to 60 years (91.7% of women, 8.3% of men).

The results of the study

Table 1

The relationship between loneliness and psychological well-being

Symbols: * - p<0,05; ** - p<0,01

The negative feeling of loneliness has moderate negative correlations with positive relationships (r = -0.338, p<0.01), autonomy (r = -0.440, p<0.01), environmental management (r = -0.420, p<0.01), personal growth (r = -0.300, p<0.01), goals in life (r = -0.410, p<0.01), self-acceptance (r = -0.509, p<0.01) and the overall level of psychological well-being (r = -0.521, p<0,01). This means that the more pronounced the negative perception of loneliness, the lower the level of all aspects of psychological well-being. Consequently, the perception of loneliness through the prism of negative feelings has a complex destructive effect on the psychological health of the individual.

Denial of loneliness is characterized by moderate negative correlations with positive relationships (r = -0.261, p<0.01), environment management (r = -0.220, p<0.01), goals in life (r = -0.214, p<0.01), as well as a weak negative relationship with self-acceptance (r = -0.171, p<0.05) and the overall level of psychological well-being (r = -0.195, p<0,01). This indicates that the more actively a person denies his loneliness, the less positive relationships, the ability to manage life circumstances, life orientations and self-acceptance are developed. Thus, the denial of loneliness is associated with a deterioration in social functioning and personal integration.

The perception of loneliness as a temporary phenomenon shows weak positive correlations with autonomy (r = 0.208, p<0.01), personal growth (r = 0.276, p<0.01) and the overall level of psychological well-being (r = 0.143, p<0,05). This means that the more a person perceives loneliness as a transitory state, the higher their ability to self-manage, strive for development, and overall sense of well-being. Therefore, a positive interpretation of loneliness as a temporary stage can play a protective role for the psychological state.

Fear of responsibility in the context of experiencing loneliness has moderate negative correlations with positive relationships (r = -0.307, p<0.01), autonomy (r = -0.254, p<0.01), environmental management (r = -0.467, p<0.01), personal growth (r = -0.228, p<0.01), goals in life (r = -0.474, p<0.01), self-acceptance (r = -0.421, p<0.01) and the overall level of psychological well-being (r = -0.466, p<0,01). This indicates that the greater the fear of responsibility, the lower the level of all components of psychological well-being. Consequently, the inability to take responsibility for your life exacerbates the negative effects of loneliness.

The spiritual perception of loneliness demonstrates moderate negative correlations with positive relationships (r = -0.524, p<0.01), autonomy (r = -0.391, p<0.01), environmental management (r = -0.515, p<0.01), personal growth (r = -0.299, p<0.01), goals in life (r = -0.482, p<0.01), self-acceptance (r = -0.557, p<0.01) and the overall level of psychological well-being (r = -0.608, p<0,01). This indicates that the more loneliness is perceived as a spiritual experience without constructive processing, the lower the level of psychological well-being. Consequently, experiencing loneliness through a spiritual lens, without active inner work, can lead to increased depressive tendencies.

The physical perception of loneliness is associated with moderate negative correlations with positive relationships (r = -0.312, p<0.01), autonomy (r = -0.358, p<0.01), environmental management (r = -0.399, p<0.01), personal growth (r = -0.226, p<0.01), goals in life (r = -0.374, p<0.01), self-acceptance (r = -0.453, p<0.01) and the overall level of psychological well-being (r = -0.446, p<0,01). This means that the more loneliness manifests itself on a physical level, the lower all indicators of psychological health. Consequently, the somatization of loneliness exacerbates internal psychological difficulties.

The overall experience of loneliness demonstrates moderate negative correlations with positive relationships (r = -0.435, p<0.01), autonomy (r = -0.300, p<0.01), environmental management (r = -0.508, p<0.01), personal growth (r = -0.217, p<0.01), goals in life (r = -0.491, p<0.01), self-acceptance (r = -0.545, p<0.01) and the overall level of psychological well-being (r = -0.544, p<0,01). This suggests that the more intensely a person experiences loneliness as a whole, the lower the level of all components of his psychological well-being. Consequently, loneliness has a systemic negative impact on the psychological sphere of personality.

The results of the analysis show that various aspects of experiencing loneliness have mostly negative correlations with components of psychological well-being. The negative feeling of loneliness, fear of responsibility, and spiritual perception of loneliness have a particularly pronounced destructive effect. On the contrary, the perception of loneliness as a temporary phenomenon is associated with relatively favorable personality characteristics. These findings highlight the importance of psychological interpretation of loneliness for maintaining or disrupting a person's inner well-being.

Table 2

The relationship between loneliness and satisfaction of basic needs

Symbols: * - p<0,05; ** - p<0,01

The negative feeling of loneliness has moderate negative correlations with autonomy (r = -0.363, p<0.01) and weak negative correlations with competence (r = -0.142, p<0,05). This means that the more pronounced the negative perception of loneliness, the lower the satisfaction with basic psychological needs for autonomy and competence. Consequently, the negative experience of loneliness is associated with a sense of inability to control one's life and an underestimation of one's own effectiveness.

Denial of loneliness has a moderate negative relationship with the need for belonging (r = -0.235, p<0,01). This means that the more actively a person denies his loneliness, the lower his satisfaction with the need to be accepted and supported in a social group. Consequently, the denial of loneliness leads to increased social isolation and a decrease in the sense of belonging to the community.

Fear of responsibility in the context of loneliness has weak negative correlations with autonomy (r = -0.260, p<0.01), competence (r = -0.160, p<0.05) and affiliation (r = -0.207, p<0,01). This suggests that the more pronounced the fear of responsibility, the lower the satisfaction with the needs for autonomy, competence and belonging. Consequently, the fear of taking responsibility reduces the overall level of satisfaction with basic psychological needs, hindering inner growth and successful socialization.

The spiritual experience of loneliness has moderate negative correlations with autonomy (r = -0.447, p<0.01) and membership (r = -0.284, p<0.01), as well as a weak negative relationship with competence (r = -0.212, p<0,01). This indicates that the more pronounced the spiritual perception of loneliness, the lower the satisfaction of all basic basic needs. Consequently, spiritual interpretation of loneliness without constructive processing can increase feelings of alienation, incompetence, and lack of control over one's own life.

The physical experience of loneliness demonstrates moderate negative correlations with autonomy (r = -0.303, p<0.01) and weak negative correlations with competence (r = -0.162, p<0,05). This means that the more loneliness is perceived on a physical level, the lower the satisfaction of needs for autonomy and competence. Consequently, the physical manifestation of loneliness is associated with a decrease in the ability to feel independent and competent in the world around us.

The overall experience of loneliness has moderate negative correlations with autonomy (r = -0.371, p<0.01) and membership (r = -0.248, p<0.01), as well as a weak negative relationship with competence (r = -0.141, p<0,05). This suggests that the more strongly a person experiences loneliness in general, the lower the satisfaction with the needs for autonomy, belonging and competence. Consequently, the global feeling of loneliness weakens the satisfaction of basic psychological needs, undermining the foundations of psychological well-being.

The results of the analysis show that the negative aspects of experiencing loneliness, such as fear of responsibility, denial, and physical and spiritual perception of loneliness, have significant negative correlations with satisfaction with basic psychological needs for autonomy, competence, and belonging. Especially strong negative connections are observed between the spiritual experience of loneliness and autonomy. The positive interpretation of loneliness as a temporary phenomenon does not significantly affect the satisfaction of basic needs. These data emphasize that experiencing loneliness is an important factor that weakens the basic psychological support of a person and affects his inner balance.

Table 3

The relationship between loneliness and social intelligence

Symbols: * - p<0,05; ** - p<0,01

The negative feeling of loneliness has moderate negative correlations with self-awareness (r = -0.257, p<0.01), self-regulation (r = -0.461, p<0.01), sociability (r = -0.170, p<0.05) and self-motivation (r = -0.323, p<0,01). This means that the more pronounced the negative perception of loneliness, the lower the level of self-awareness, self-regulation, communication skills, and intrinsic motivation. Consequently, negative experiences of loneliness weaken the key components of social intelligence necessary for effective interaction with the outside world and maintaining internal balance.

Denial of loneliness shows a weak negative relationship with self-regulation (r = -0.143, p<0.05) and a moderate negative relationship with sociability (r = -0.255, p<0,01). This indicates that the more actively a person denies his loneliness, the lower his ability to regulate his own emotional states and the weaker his communication skills. Consequently, the denial of loneliness hinders the effective management of their emotions and makes social contacts difficult.

The perception of loneliness as a temporary phenomenon has weak positive correlations with self-awareness (r = 0.164, p<0.05) and with self-motivation (r = 0.203, p<0,01). This means that the more a person perceives his loneliness as a temporary state, the higher his level of awareness of his own emotions and motives, as well as internal motivation for action. Therefore, a positive interpretation of loneliness helps to maintain personal activity and self-understanding.

Fear of responsibility in the context of loneliness has weak negative correlations with self-awareness (r = -0.188, p<0.01), self-regulation (r = -0.191, p<0.01) and sociability (r = -0.242, p<0,01). This indicates that the greater the fear of responsibility, the lower the level of awareness, the ability to regulate one's behavior, and the ability to establish contacts with others. Consequently, the fear of responsibility negatively affects a person's social adaptation and inner manageability.

The spiritual perception of loneliness has moderate negative correlations with self-awareness (r = -0.281, p<0.01), self-regulation (r = -0.372, p<0.01), sociability (r = -0.285, p<0.01) and a weak negative relationship with self-motivation (r = -0.243, p<0,01). This means that the more pronounced the spiritual perception of loneliness is without constructive processing, the lower the indicators of social intelligence. Consequently, going into spiritual experiences of loneliness without reflection and active actions weakens the adaptive abilities of a person in a social environment.

The physical experience of loneliness is associated with moderate negative correlations with self-awareness (r = -0.239, p<0.01), self-regulation (r = -0.324, p<0.01) and a weak negative relationship with self-motivation (r = -0.222, p<0,01). This means that the more loneliness is perceived at the level of physical sensations, the lower the awareness, ability to self-regulate and internal motivation. Consequently, the somatization of loneliness leads to a decrease in opportunities for effective social and personal adaptation.

The general experience of loneliness has moderate negative correlations with self-awareness (r = -0.239, p<0.01), self-regulation (r = -0.351, p<0.01), sociability (r = -0.282, p<0.01) and a weak negative relationship with self-motivation (r = -0.151, p<0,05). This indicates that the more strongly a person experiences loneliness in general, the lower his ability to self-awareness, self-regulation, effective communication and internal motivation. Consequently, the general experience of loneliness has a complex negative impact on social intelligence.

The results of the analysis show that the negative and spiritual aspects of experiencing loneliness especially strongly reduce the levels of self-awareness, self-regulation, sociability and self-motivation. The perception of loneliness as a temporary condition, on the contrary, is associated with increased self-awareness and internal motivation. These data emphasize that the nature of the interpretation of loneliness is crucial for the state of a person's social intelligence and his ability to successfully adapt socially.

Table 4

The relationship between loneliness and hopelessness

Symbols: * - p<0,05; ** - p<0,01

The negative feeling of loneliness has a moderate positive relationship with hopelessness (r = 0.500, p<0,01). This means that the more a person experiences negative emotions about loneliness, the higher their level of hopelessness. Consequently, the negative perception of loneliness is closely related to the formation of pessimistic expectations about the future and a sense of lack of a way out of the current situation.

Fear of responsibility in the context of loneliness has a moderate positive relationship with hopelessness (r = 0.406, p<0,01). This means that the more pronounced the fear of responsibility for one's life in a situation of loneliness, the higher the feeling of hopelessness. Consequently, avoiding responsibility in the context of loneliness contributes to strengthening negative forecasts and reducing faith in the possibility of positive changes.

The spiritual perception of loneliness demonstrates a moderate positive relationship with hopelessness (r = 0.486, p<0,01). This means that the more a person perceives his loneliness through the prism of deep spiritual experiences, the more pronounced the feeling of hopelessness is. Consequently, unreflected spiritual experiences of loneliness can increase inner disharmony and a sense of hopelessness.

The physical experience of loneliness is associated with a moderate positive relationship with hopelessness (r = 0.376, p<0,01). This suggests that the more loneliness manifests itself on a physical level through bodily symptoms or sensations, the higher the level of hopelessness. Consequently, the somatization of loneliness reinforces the perception of the future as bleak and difficult to overcome.

The overall experience of loneliness has a moderate positive relationship with hopelessness (r = 0.447, p<0,01). This indicates that the more intensely a person experiences loneliness in general, the higher the level of his hopelessness. Consequently, the global perception of loneliness is closely related to a sense of lack of life prospects and a decrease in psychological stability. These data emphasize that the intense and negative perception of loneliness is a significant risk factor in the formation of feelings of hopelessness, which worsens the psychological health of the individual.

Conclusions

The analysis of the interrelationships between the experience of loneliness and the main psychological indicators demonstrated the complex nature of the influence of loneliness on the state of personality.

1. It was found that the negative perception of loneliness, fear of responsibility, as well as the spiritual and physical perception of loneliness have a predominantly negative impact on key components of psychological well-being, satisfaction of basic psychological needs, social intelligence and the level of hopelessness. Of particular interest are the data on the spiritual perception of loneliness, which, contrary to expectations about the possible resource potential, turned out to be associated with a worsening psychological state and increased hopelessness.

2. The physical perception of loneliness also acts as a factor exacerbating emotional and cognitive impairments. This highlights the importance of positive cognitive processing of loneliness experiences in order to maintain psychological stability of the individual.

3. The results of the study demonstrate that loneliness does not determine the nature of its influence on a person, but rather the peculiarities of perception and interpretation of this condition. The negative cognitive and emotional coloring of loneliness is a significant predictor of a decrease in psychological well-being, violations of basic needs, deficits in social intelligence and an increase in hopelessness, while a positive attitude towards the transience of loneliness contributes to the preservation of internal resources and adaptability.

The findings emphasize the need for targeted psychological work with the interpretation of loneliness to prevent its maladaptive effects.