Ethnocultural characteristics of color in the religious painting of nomadic peoples in Northern China

Chzhan In Postgraduate student; Institute of Art Education; A. I. Herzen Russian State Pedagogical University 48 Moika River Embankment, building 6, office 57, Saint Petersburg, Russia, 191186 zhangying101@rambler.ru

Introduction

In Russian science, in the light of various factors and the rapidly increasing pace of interaction between Russia and China, there is a growing interest in the art space of the eastern neighbor, its present and past, as well as the prospects for the development of the future in dialogue with the Russian art world. At the same time, information about the evolution of artistic and pictorial qualities of Chinese painting in science is presented quite fully. At the same time, the fine art of China is a complex phenomenon, in the formation of which different peoples participated at various historical stages. Moreover, the existence of the Silk Road made cultural exchanges one of the key factors influencing the nature of artistic imagery, ideological content, and technological features of Chinese art. In this complex process, a special role was assigned to the creative activity of the nomadic peoples living in the north of the country. They contributed to the general artistic process of medieval China, and also influenced the artistic traditions of the ancestors of modern Mongols, Kyrgyz, and nomads of Russia. At the same time, the nomadic peoples of Northern China created their own visual art, complementing it with expressive means and techniques borrowed from other nomadic and agricultural peoples, creatively processed them, and also sought and found their own unique creative methods.

In Russian studies, the work of the nomadic peoples of China is rarely considered as an art problem. The works of Chinese researchers, including those written at a high scientific level, describe the history of the development of fine art of the northern nomadic peoples living in Northern China, but, as a rule, in the context of archeology, anthropology and ethnography, as well as cultural studies. In particular, it is worth mentioning the works in Chinese by such scientists as Hanedoi Hiroshi ^[1], Zhong Gao ^[2], Liu Yitang ^[3] and others. The most fundamental work of recent years should be called the book "Plastic Arts and their reflection in the culture of the nomads of Northern China" by Zhang Jingming (2013), in which the author comprehensively examined the development of various types of art in the region, in particular sculpture, painting, architecture, embroidery, ceramics, stone, metal, wood, as well as jewelry art. Zhang Jingming noted that the nomads associated visual activity primarily with the traditions of handicraft production. This also applied to painting, which was filled with the meanings and art forms of local ethnic groups ^[4]. In addition, Chinese scientists often turned to the analysis of color and its combinations in fresco painting, but did not pay much attention to the artistic interpretation of color in the works of representatives of nomadic peoples. ^{[5; 6; 7; 8; 9; 10; 11 and others]}. It is noteworthy that in the works of art history, referring to the fine arts of the Chinese nomads, the role of color and its specifics are highlighted, but indirectly ^{[12; 13; 14; 15; 16; 17 and others]}.

The traditions of using color in medieval painting of nomadic peoples inhabiting the territories along the Silk Road

In ancient times, the Silk Road was a means of exchanging artistic and visual traditions between the nomadic peoples of Eurasia. Through its channels, ideas, images, technologies, and materials were exchanged between China and foreign countries along the route from Chang'an to Syria, which enriched the artistic imagery of the art of a particular ethnic group. On the territory of modern China, the lands of modern Xinjiang have become the clearest example of such integration, interpretation and reception. These territories are located in the interior of the Eurasian continent. They were surrounded by the developed Han culture of the Central Plains, and also constantly interacted with the Persian and Indian religious, philosophical and artistic traditions. During the reign of Emperor Wu of the Han Dynasty, the Silk Road was laid, and Xinjiang began to actively interact with the Greco-Roman world. Eventually, a situation developed in which the four named cultures began to integrate into Xinjiang, on the basis of which local art, in particular painting, began to develop. This kind of "melting pot" combined the work of the Xiongnu, Wuxun, Xianbians, Zhuzhan, Turkic, Mongolian, Uighur and other ethnic groups. The pictorial art of the nomads of the northern part of China has its ancient origins, forming a relatively similar artistic language. In the early period, especially in the Bronze Age, rock carvings were created, which were widely distributed. In the Middle Ages, murals began to decorate tombs and cave temples.

The Silk Road is a concept introduced by representatives of Western science, namely the German geographer Baron Ferdinand Paul Wilhelm von Richthofen back in 1877. Historically, the north of this road is the Eurasian steppe, and the ancient Wusun, Dayue, Xiongnu, Turkic, Western Liao, Mongol and other ethnic groups migrated west and north along this road. Therefore, some scientists call it the "migration route of nomads" ^{[18, p. 71]}. The route ran from the Hexi corridor to the European steppes. At the same time, nomads concentrated in the north of this channel, interacting with agricultural settled peoples living in the steppe. At that time, there were frequent ethnic migrations between them, often aggressive and militarized. At the same time, such ethnic integration in the area contributed to economic, cultural and social progress and influenced the nomadic way of life, and after it, the artistic features of the nomads. Initially, the decorative element prevailed in the latter, and the religious function of images was at the forefront. Various types of fine art, especially frescoes, were created mainly for participation in prayer and funeral ceremonies.

After the settlement of the Uighur people and their interaction with other ethnic groups, rapid social and cultural development took place, including production, which, in turn, stimulated the growth of the number and further improvement of crafts associated with metal mining, smelting, canal laying, social management, religious cults, etc. Liu Yitang believes that in the 8th-9th centuries, nomads became acquainted with agriculture, which organically coexisted with cattle breeding ^{[19, p. 39]}. They began to build cities, moving to a peaceful, rather unpretentious, but, what is important for the development of the art world, stable life. As a result, local artists have the opportunity to create works of fine art in the relatively peaceful conditions of a semi-sedentary lifestyle. This led to significant artistic transformations in the figurative and expressive range of their works.

During the Spring and Autumn period, nomadic art vividly captured various aspects of nomadic life and used appropriate expressive means for this. In Luanping County, many works of art were discovered in the tomb of the Rong people, namely bronze earrings, green jade tubes, agate and turquoise necklaces, including those covered with floral and geometric ornaments, zoomorphic patterns. These works are based on the nomads' preferences for ordinary and understandable things created within the framework of handicraft production with its characteristic color combinations.

Figure 1. Fragment of a fresco depicting Uighur princes. Bezeklik. Cave No. 9. Ca. VIII-IX c. Museum of Indian Art, Berlin. Source: https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%9A%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%A4%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B0:Uighur_princes,_Bezeklik,_Cave_9,_c._8th-9th_century_AD,_wall_painting_-_Ethnological_Museum,_Berlin_-_DSC01747.JPG

At that time, an ensemble of Buddhist cave monasteries of the Gaochang-Uygur Kingdom was created in Bezeklik. Their walls are decorated with colorful murals, which are influenced not only by Buddhist, but also by the Iranian tradition associated with the Turkic ethnic groups that have integrated with the Uighurs. Despite the destruction caused by various conflicts and disagreements, and the barbaric methods of Western researchers, fragments of some frescoes are distinguished by their brightness of color, which can be used to assess the propensity of the once nomadic people for decorative solutions to the color system, bright colors, and large colorful spots that successfully combine with finely drawn details (Fig. 1). This is primarily first of all, it concerns those murals that were created during the period of the Uyghur kingdom of Gaochang. The frescoes were painted on dry brick walls with paint mixed with vegetable fibers, and lapis lazuli, copper oxide, cinnabar, gold foil, etc. were used as pigments.

Most depict a standing Buddha with his right shoulder bared, his head illuminated, surrounded by disciples, bodhisattvas, heavenly kings, and donors. Some of them show camels, donkeys, horses, houses and gardens. All compositions are predominantly red, the painting is detailed. The figures and costumes have obvious local features. The most striking images are images of Buddhist sutras, which are monumental two-meter compositions located on two sides of an underground corridor. Many of the best-preserved works were literally cut out in fragments and taken abroad, which makes it difficult to create a comprehensive picture of the painting's color scheme. Similar images can be found in the caves of Shengjinkou and Kuga in Turfan. It is within the boundaries of these monuments, located at the eastern tip of the Tien Shan Mountains, that the process of forming the artistic language of the art of painting in the region is visible.

The influence of the traditions of representatives of the Western regions of medieval China on the techniques of using color in the painting of nomadic peoples

Local painting was also influenced by the style of the Han works, as well as the traditions of the regions located in the west. Against this background, the original coloristic characteristics of the local religious fresco painting took shape. Interaction with the Han Chinese from the Central Plains allowed the nomads to get acquainted with the materials and techniques of pen and ink painting, which further stimulated a qualitative leap in the techniques of mixing paints and combining colors, similar to the sfumato effect. For example, with regard to color, the authors of the frescoes of the Bezeklik complex did not use spots of blue and green tones, ochre and other colors to form a clear contrasting picture, as was the case in the early Kyzyl period, but preferred cinnabar, earthy red, orange-red and similar colors. With their help, he created soft and gentle transitions using warm tones. The robes and clothes of the heroes were almost completely red. The same colors appear in the frescoes of the Kizil caves, but at a later time.

It should be noted that the nomads absorbed and integrated other cultures, while retaining their original artistic and visual features. The American anthropologist A.L. Kleuber once suggested that in the process of cultural change, a kind of "stimulus diffusion" occurs when a certain cultural concept is borrowed by others, but without integrating the semantic content and individual means of its expression. Here, Uighur art absorbed the forms of Buddhist art, but retained the original images associated with beliefs. Thus, they used the techniques and techniques of painting the Central Plains, including in terms of color, to embody Manichaean and Nestorian ideas about the world. For example, these are images of figures with ethnic features similar to those created during the Tang Dynasty, images of dynamically flowing and/or fluttering clothes, and the characteristic wide sleeves on Manichaean frescoes were no different from Buddhist frescoes of the same period. Nevertheless, from the point of view of color, for the reason that Manichaeism affirmed the idea of simplicity and purity, both external and internal, the characters are mostly depicted dressed in snow-white robes. This led to the creation of the Gaochang line in art with its unique flavor. It retained its inherent idea of color, but also borrowed and absorbed the elements and properties of other cultures, forming a unique flavor in painting.

Figure 2. Fragment of the fresco. Kyzyl. Cave No. 206. Ca. III-IX c. The National Museum in Seoul, South Korea. Source: https://collection.sina.com.cn/cpsc/2018-08-01/doc-ihhacrce7150850.shtml

The artists combined the features of foreign art with their own culture, which is reflected in the colorful world of their representative rock frescoes, in particular the paintings in the Kizil caves, located seven kilometers southeast of the village of Kyzyl, Baicheng County, Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region. There are more than three hundred man-made caves, on the walls of which there are about four square meters of frescoes, as well as a small number of painted clay sculptures. This complex was formed from the 3rd to the 9th centuries. During this period, there was also a certain approach to the coloristic solution of compositions. First of all, it is worth noting the ingenuity of local artists in applying contrasts between red and green, blue and orange, yellow and purple, black and white (Fig. 2). In the Thousand Buddhas cave, the juxtaposition of yellow and purple, blue and green, purple and red is pronounced. This technique is an opposition between two colors, and both colors are visually separated from each other and, at the same time, interconnected. In addition, the artists skillfully absorbed the Han tradition, combining it with elements of Greco-Roman, Persian and Indian influences. At the same time, the previous artistic traditions of the Nomads influenced the preservation of flatness and decorativeness when composing compositions.

The approach of the craftsmen in this area differed from the Han fresco art by also being less inclined to elegant and subtle color combinations. They did not strive for the objectivity and realism characteristic of their contemporary painting in more western regions. Local artists used minerals as coloring pigments, which they mainly produced locally ^{[20, p. 14]}. In the future, this played a cruel joke with the paintings, as the former richness and expressiveness of the color ratios faded significantly. Many of the frescoes were discolored, especially where there were contrasts of dark fuchsia with cobalt; black and crimson with pink and green; black, blue and purple colors. They widely used pink, orange, purple, golden yellow and yellow colors, given in warm tones. They were combined with cool tones such as pink-green, lime-blue, cobalt-blue, lilac, gray-violet-blue, etc. This formed a warm and cold contrast.

Buddhist subjects were placed by the authors of the frescoes of the Kizil caves in diamond grids, which not only preserved the relative independence of the drawings, but also allowed for a certain rhythm consisting of local decorative spots. Geometric patterns or ornaments in the form of buds were usually placed around the main motifs, figures and animals. A large area of the compositions is covered with cool colors such as dark blue or green, and most of them are pure colors. Local artists rarely use mixed colors. Sometimes they give contrasts with warm colors, such as ochre or red. Some of the Buddha statues are painted in gold and also covered with rich floral patterns, which again enhances the decorative element characteristic of nomadic art. In addition, the attention to detail associated with the natural environment of nomads is one of the features of their culture and art. Therefore, the reflection of natural forms can be found literally everywhere from the same patterns to landscape compositions. During the Yuan Dynasty, attention to nature led to the development of landscape painting. In this light, the example of Zhao Mengfu and other artists who integrated books and paintings is indicative, creating a new field of Chinese art.

The picturesque traditions of the nomadic peoples of Northern China, who lived in the territory of modern Xinjiang, were laid down in the medieval period. They were noticeably different from what the art of neighboring ethnic groups offered. Their work was more relaxed, natural, and fluid. Thus, the techniques of making images constantly varied, genre features also underwent transformations, and after them, coloristic solutions. For example, the Khitan murals of the Song and Liao periods have many elements related to nature, compared to what could be seen in the paintings of the Tang and Five Dynasties. The same applied to color preferences related to natural and harmoniously juxtaposed colors. The murals made by representatives of this nomadic people seem simple and beautiful in terms of color compared to what the Han Chinese of the Tang and Song dynasties were doing at the same time.

Conclusion

In conclusion, it should be said that the color preferences of the nomadic peoples of Northern China in painting are related to aesthetic ideas and beliefs. Artists representing ethnic groups in Xinjiang formed a special artistic language that was simultaneously nourished by many cultures, in particular, it borrowed many elements from the art of the Han people in the Central Plains, but also differed from them. Their choice of color scheme was based on the desire to coordinate the image with the natural environment. At the same time, simplicity was combined with attention to detail, with the desire to generalize form, color spots, and create a rhythm in order to emphasize the decorative element, which had a connection with the previously dominant craft culture. For this reason, many of the frescoes in their color resembled the household items of those ethnic groups: from their holidays to rituals. The process of forming an approach to color in the context of painting originated in the region in question during the medieval period, that is, it coincided with the life of nomadic peoples in these lands.