Problems and prospects of scientific and technological cooperation between Russia and India in modern conditions: international legal dimension

Shugurov Mark Vladimirovich ORCID: 0000-0003-3604-3961 Doctor of Philosophy Professor; Department of International Law; Saratov State Law Academy 410028, Russia, Saratov, Volskaya str., 1 shugurovs@mail.ru Other publications by this author

Pechatnova Yuliya Vadimovna Postgraduate student; Department of Theory and History of State and Law; Altai State University 656049, Russia, Barnaul, Socialist ave., 68 jp_0707@mail.ru Other publications by this author

The research was carried out at the expense of a grant from the Russian Science Foundation No. 23-28-01296, https://rscf.ru/project/23-28-01296/

Introduction

The complications in the sphere of Russia's participation in international scientific and technological cooperation (hereinafter - ISTC), caused by the introduction of unprecedented economic and related scientific sanctions, encourage our country to intensify scientific ties in geographical areas that are not affected by the pressure of sanctions pressure. A significant compensation for the negative consequences of the suspension of the relevant agreements, as well as institutional gaps in international cooperation in the scientific and technical field, which were undertaken by Western states, their universities, research centers and academic associations, was the intensification of cooperation between Russia and Asian states.

Increased attention to Asian states within the framework of the general course of turning to the East occurred during the introduction of the first packages of anti-Russian sanctions. The unprecedented flurry of anti-Russian sanctions in 2022 became a kind of driver of the transition from the rhetoric of turning to the East to the real practice of building new formats of foreign policy relations. It is quite noticeable that the expansion of economic ties with the states of this region is associated with the expansion and deepening of scientific and technological cooperation, in the field of which significant groundwork has already been accumulated and significant results have been obtained.

India, which is currently one of the promising poles of global economic and scientific and technological development, belongs to one of the states whose economic relations and scientific and technological ties have recently undergone significant updating. As A.V. Kupriyanov correctly notes, "the sanctions imposed by Western countries on Russia pose a serious challenge to it, forcing it to look for allies in the East. One of them is India, a traditional Russian partner in South Asia, whose area of interest is constantly expanding" ^{[1, p. 131]}.

As such, Russian-Indian cooperation, based on traditionally friendly relations, is represented by a wide range of directions in various fields of economics, science and culture (G. Ivashentsov Successes and prospects of Russian-Indian relations (01/16/2020) (https://russiancouncil.ru/analytics-and-comments/analytics/uspekhi-i-perspektivy-rossiysko-indiyskikh-otnosheniy/)) , ^[2]. The new round of development of multifaceted Russian-Indian relations in 2022-2024 is a continuation of the previous intensification of cooperation between the two countries in high-tech industries in line with the Russian import substitution policy ^[3], as well as in the general context of initiatives to deepen contacts with friendly states in the context of a certain weakening of influence on them from the United States.

Despite the fact that our countries are not currently among the main partners in the scientific and technological field, their interest in each other is beyond doubt, especially since the ISTC has been and remains an instrument for achieving global competitiveness of states ^[4]. The initiator of the intensification of cooperation is Russia, which intends to make up for the damage caused by the loss of institutional ties with some of the main partner states in the scientific field. Taking into account the fact that India has currently achieved serious results in a number of areas of science, technology and innovation (hereinafter – STI), the Russian side has undertaken a series of initiatives to move to a qualitatively new level of scientific and technological cooperation with India, which also demonstrates its interest in it.

The idea that Russia and India are strategic partners in the scientific and technological field is more a strategic guideline than a statement of the real state of affairs. Its implementation in practice implies an increase in the intensity and expansion of areas of scientific and technological cooperation. In turn, solving this problem requires ensuring a transition to a qualitatively new level of connectivity within the framework of trade, economic and industrial relations. The political basis for making a leap in bilateral relations is a particularly privileged strategic partnership between the two countries, which at the same time presupposes the establishment of a model of a polycentric world.

The general context of mutual attraction is the desire to take a worthy place in the process of transition to Industry 4.0 and strengthen their competitive advantages. At the same time, pragmatic intentions are quite noticeable. For Russia, it is a desire to preserve and strengthen its scientific and technological potential, as well as expand the areas of foreign economic relations that have suffered from large–scale sanctions, including in the scientific and technological sphere. For India, it is a desire to make the most effective use of the situation in which Russia, which is its strategic partner, including a key BRICS partner, finds itself for its benefit. The most important prerequisite for the transition of scientific and technological cooperation to a new level, which ensures leadership in the "industries of the future", is the strengthening of political connectivity between the two states, as well as the development of dialogue not only between representatives of the academic sphere, but also representatives of the business communities of the two countries.

In the light of the above, the purpose of the article is to identify initiative areas for enhancing scientific and technological cooperation between Russia and India in modern conditions, which will contribute to the effective implementation of the provisions forming the systemic legal framework for bilateral cooperation in the field of STI.

The objectives of this study include the following:

– systematization of the legal and political-legal foundations of the Russian-Indian ISTC;

– analysis of the achievements and problems of the Russian-Indian ISTC;

– consideration of current initiatives aimed at expanding and deepening the Russian-Indian ISTC in the context of anti-Russian sanctions against Russia.

In the process of achieving the research goal and solving the tasks set, the authors used the following methods and approaches: historical and legal method, forecasting method, formal dogmatic method, systematic approach, modeling method.

1. Legal, political, legal and organizational foundations of scientific and technological cooperation between Russia and India

Scientific and technological cooperation between Russia and India, closely linked to trade and economic relations, is a sphere of bilateral relations that includes a wide range of areas (ICT, high energy physics, renewable energy, biotechnology, medical sciences, meteorology, etc.). Like economic cooperation, in the historical aspect it is largely It is determined by the needs of the two countries and depends on the current geopolitical situation. The peculiarity of the effect of the factor of the geopolitical situation, both in the past and in the present, is that it affects mainly the intensity of Russian-Indian relations, without having any significant impact on the initial predisposition and sympathy of the two countries for each other. Therefore, the essential basis of their relations, which was laid at one time in the Soviet era and further strengthened in the post-Soviet period, serves as a guarantee for expanding the prospects of bilateral cooperation ^[5], including in the scientific and technological sphere, which, as is known, determines the level and pace of economic and social development. Anyway, the intensification of scientific and technological cooperation between the two countries in modern conditions should be understood not as a certain revival of "drooping" ties, but as their transfer to a qualitatively new level. This thesis can be justified by considering the Russian-Indian scientific and technical cooperation and its results.

It is quite logical to start with the fact that an important factor in the productive cooperation between the two countries in the field of STI is the high degree of institutionalization of their ties. The relevant legal and organizational foundations originated in the USSR and found their further development in the post-Soviet period. As a result, a reliable platform has been formed to "connect" all stakeholders from both countries (universities, research centers, academies of sciences, innovative companies).

After the Second World War, the USSR became an active supplier to the Indian markets of high-tech products, mainly military equipment ^[6]. In addition, Soviet-Indian relations in the field of culture, science and education were actively developing (Article 7 of the Treaty on Peace, Friendship and Cooperation between the USSR and the Republic of India dated August 9, 1971 (New Delhi, August 9, 1971) (https://docs.cntd.ru/document/1901358 )).

The culmination of cooperation falls at the end of the 80s of the twentieth century. This was the result of the implementation of decisions taken at the highest level. Scientific and technical cooperation between Russia and India received legal formalization in 1987 by concluding an agreement on a Comprehensive long-term program of scientific and technical cooperation between the USSR and India dated July 3, 1987. The program provided for the promotion of direct contacts between scientists and institutions, the implementation of joint projects, the results of which are subject to industrial application and commercial use. In order to ensure the implementation of the Program, a Joint Council was established. The results of Russian-Indian cooperation during this period include the development of India's first polio vaccine and the creation of Bharat Immunological and Biologicals Corporation Ltd (BIBCOL) for its production.

In the 1980s, due to the difficulties of importing strategic advanced technologies, the Indian Government implemented a policy aimed at achieving technological self-sufficiency through the development and promotion of local technologies, as proclaimed in the 1983 Technology Policy Statement (Government of India Technology Policy Statement (January 1983) (https://indiabioscience.org/media/articles/TPS-1983.pdf )). This led to the creation of The Technology Development Foundation and the Council for Technology, Information Forecasting and Assessment (TIFAC). In order to achieve the goals of increasing technological competence, there has been an expansion of support for mass education and scientific research in universities. In order to develop scientific and technological potential, it was supposed to develop relations with the USSR in various subject technological fields. Thus, within the framework of the Interstate Agreement of November 20, 1988, the parties agreed on the construction of the first Indian nuclear power plant (Agreement between the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics and the Republic of India on Cooperation in the construction of a nuclear power plant in India (New Delhi, November 20, 1988) https://www.mid.ru/ru/foreign_policy/international_contracts/international_contracts/2_contract/49032/)).

In the 90s of the XX century, the potential of Russian-Indian relations was not realized for some time. The process of restoring the dynamics of bilateral relations lasted until the second half of the 1990s. During this period, new legal and organizational foundations were being formed, designed to ensure a new round of scientific and technological cooperation based on the gradual restoration of the previous level of trust ^[7].

In 1993, the Treaty of Friendship and Cooperation between the Russian Federation and the Republic of India was concluded (the Treaty of Friendship and Cooperation between the Russian Federation and the Republic of India (New Delhi, January 28, 1993) (https://docs.cntd.ru/document/901884900 )), which continued the traditions of the bilateral Treaty of Peace, Friendship and Cooperation between the USSR and the Republic of India from August 9, 1971. Article 7 of the 1993 Treaty stipulated the obligation of the High Contracting Parties to assist each other in the development of mutually beneficial trade, economic, scientific and technical cooperation.

The Intergovernmental Russian-Indian Agreement on Scientific and Technical Cooperation of 1994 (Intergovernmental Russian-Indian Agreement on Scientific and Technical Cooperation of June 30, 1994) establishes the legal basis for the development of bilateral cooperation between Russia and India in this area (https://docs.cntd.ru/document/901878297 )). The agreement was concluded for a period of ten years and was automatically extended thereafter. It remains in force at the present time. The priority areas of cooperation established in the agreement are fundamental and applied research in the field of natural sciences, industrial research and new technologies (art. 2).

According to the terms of the agreement, Russia and India undertake to promote scientific and technical development through the exchange of scientific personnel, transfer of scientific experience, organization of joint scientific and technical events, joint research work, creation of research centers and scientific laboratories, as well as other forms of scientific and technical cooperation (Article 4). Thus, in The agreement has consolidated the key forms of cooperation, which are studied in detail in the specialized literature ^[8].

The agreement under consideration also laid down the institutional framework for cooperation necessary for the implementation of the provisions provided for in it. According to Article 5, coordination and evaluation of joint activities is carried out by the Russian-Indian Working Group on Scientific and Technical Cooperation, operating within the framework of the Russian-Indian Intergovernmental Commission on Trade, Economic, Scientific and Technical Cooperation. The Ministry of Science and Technical Policy of the Russian Federation (now the Ministry of Science and Higher Education – approx. authors), as well as the Ministry of Science and Technology of the Republic of India, and it includes the Department of Science and Technology of the Ministry of Science and Technology of India (hereinafter – DST) (Department of Science and Technology, Government of India (https://dst.gov.in /)). Article 6 provides for the establishment of a joint Russian-Indian committee to review and make decisions on the protection and use of intellectual and industrial property. Pursuant to the 1994 Agreement, a Protocol was signed between the Government of the Russian Federation and the Government of India on the Protection and Use of Intellectual Property Rights (Protocol between the Government of the Russian Federation and the Government of India on the Protection and Use of Intellectual Property Rights to the Agreement between the Government of the Russian Federation and the Government of the Republic of India on Scientific and Technical Cooperation dated June 30, 1994 (New Delhi, December 4, 2022) (https://docs.cntd.ru/document/901866487 )). The Protocol establishes the legal regulation of relations on the creation, transfer and protection of rights to the results of intellectual activity within the framework of joint scientific and technical activities and commercialization of its results.

A new impetus to cooperation between the two countries was given by the provisions of the Joint Document on the Development of Trade, Economic, Industrial, Financial and Scientific and Technical Cooperation dated December 21, 1998 (Decree of the Government of the Russian Federation dated February 2, 1998 No. 115 "On the draft Joint Document on the development of Trade, Economic, Industrial, Financial and Scientific and Technical Cooperation between the Russian Federation By the Federation and the Republic of India in 1998-2010" (https://base .garant.ru/2558460/)). In section IV "Scientific and technical cooperation", the parties expressed their intention to encourage the actions of organizations of the two countries in order to make more effective use of scientific and technical capabilities to solve urgent scientific and technical problems of mutual interest, as well as to ensure more stable development of trade and economic relations between the countries. The following areas of interaction are highlighted: development of cooperation in various fields, taking into account the priorities and specific tasks available in the countries; creation of favorable conditions for the development and expansion of scientific and technical cooperation; stimulation of direct links between scientific organizations of the Parties; creation of joint research organizations; use of new forms of cooperation.

In 2000, relations between India and Russia acquired the character of a strategic partnership. In the Declaration on Strategic Partnership between the Russian Federation and the Republic of India dated October 3, 2000 (Declaration on Strategic Partnership between the Russian Federation and the Republic of India (New Delhi, October 3, 2000) (https://docs.cntd.ru/document/901783728 )) cooperation in the field of science and technology was highlighted as one of the areas, including the promotion of established and new forms of cooperation in fundamental and applied scientific research, the expansion of the exchange of scientists and scientific information, the establishment of direct links between research institutions/higher educational institutions. The thematic areas included cooperation in such fields as oceanology, agricultural sciences, medical sciences and biotechnology, environmentally friendly technologies, meteorology, standardization, metrology and certification of products of both countries, the use of atomic energy and outer space for peaceful purposes. In addition, the emphasis is placed on the joint search for commercial applications of the results of scientific and technical research and design developments.

As the Indian authors note, "assessing the division of the strategic and political dimension of India and Russia, there is no need for any explanation that the two countries have become closer to each other, at least compared to the Cold War period, since today's relations are based on a sense of parity, and not on a sense of excessive independence of India from Russia..." ^{[9, p. 1238]}.

An important political document designed to stimulate Russian-Indian scientific and technological cooperation was the Joint Declaration on Strengthening and Enhancing Economic and Scientific and Technical Cooperation on December 4, 2002 (Joint Declaration on Strengthening and Enhancing Economic and Scientific and Technical Cooperation (Delhi, December 4, 2002) (http://www.kremlin.ru/supplement/3548 )). This document focuses primarily on building the economic potential of states, as well as on the development and strengthening of a market economy. In other words, scientific and technological cooperation was presented in unity with economic cooperation. Paragraph 4 of the Statement emphasized that "despite some progress in this direction due to the growth of bilateral investments and business exchanges, the huge potential of economic cooperation has not been fully realized and lags far behind the high level of political relations between the two states" (Ibid.). Taking into account these circumstances, the parties decided to focus special attention on the improvement of bilateral economic relations through the implementation of a whole system of measures that were provided for in paragraph 7.

As for the scientific and technological sphere of interaction, paragraph 15 stated that there is a long tradition and established fruitful and mutually beneficial cooperation between the two countries in the field of science and technology, especially in such promising areas as telecommunications, computerization, information technology and space exploration. It was decided to further develop this area with special emphasis on creating conditions for the full-fledged commercialization of key technologies in accordance with national legislation and international agreements. In turn, it was supposed to increase attention to high-tech and advanced areas of research, as well as their practical application.

In the Joint Statement of the Leaders of the two countries in 2010 (Joint Statement: Decade of Strategic Partnership between the Russian Federation and the Republic of India and Prospects for its Development (December 21, 2010) (http://special .kremlin.ru/supplement/825 )) the transition of relations between the two states to the level of a particularly privileged strategic partnership was recorded. In paragraph 6 of the Statement, the Parties pointed to the coincidence of understanding the development of new innovative technologies as a key link in the implementation of economic modernization programs of the national economy. In accordance with this, it was planned to develop interaction programs that would build on existing ties between Russian and Indian scientific institutions and would further develop the existing groundwork.

In 2018, during the visit of the Russian President to India, both sides stated the need to expand cooperation in the field of science and technology and welcomed the successful meeting of the 10th Russian-Indian Working Group on Science and Technology ("Russia–India: Reliable Partnership in a changing world". Joint statement by the President of the Russian Federation V.V. Putin and Prime Minister of the Republic of India N. Modi (Delhi, October 5, 2018) (http://www.kremlin.ru/supplement/5343 )). The parties agreed to give impetus to cooperation on the basis of a comprehensive long-term cooperation program between the Government of the Russian Federation and The Government of the Republic of India in the field of STI by developing a roadmap to strengthen ties between various laboratories, scientific communities, universities, institutions and organizations of Russia and India in priority areas of scientific and technical cooperation.

As in other areas of international cooperation, the programmatic method is an important tool for regulating scientific and technological ties between Russia and India. The main program mechanism for the implementation of scientific and technical cooperation for the development of joint fundamental and applied research, the creation of new technologies and joint ventures, has become a unique in its scale and versatility Comprehensive long-term Program of scientific and technical cooperation between Russia and India (Decree of the Government of the Russian Federation dated September 30, 2000 No. 733 (Moscow) "On signing A comprehensive long-term program of scientific and technical cooperation between the Russian Federation and the Republic of India" (http://pravo.gov.ru/proxy/ips/?docbody=&link_id=5&nd=102067689 )) (hereinafter referred to as the Comprehensive Program). In a certain sense, it was the development of a Comprehensive long-term program of scientific and technical cooperation between the USSR and the Republic of India dated July 3, 1987. The objectives of cooperation include conducting joint research in promising areas of fundamental and applied sciences to solve urgent scientific and technical problems of mutual interest; developing and industrializing the results of scientific and technical cooperation, such as technologies, new devices, equipment and materials; promoting the development of industrial and economic cooperation. The formulation of the goals clearly reflects the priority areas of cooperation set out in the 1994 Agreement. Compared to the Agreement, the expansion of areas of cooperation (mathematics; theoretical and applied mechanics; Earth sciences; physics and astrophysics; ecology and environmental protection; chemical sciences; life sciences) is quite noticeable. The results planned for implementation in the manufacturing sector relate to a very wide range of fields of knowledge, such as biotechnology and immunology; materials science; laser science and technology; catalysis; space science and technology; accelerators and their applications; hydrology; computing and electronics; biomedical sciences and technologies; oceanology and ocean resources; technical science. In turn, the program contains a political commitment by the Parties to fully promote the creation of conditions for the joint commercialization of research and development results, and the formation of a mechanism for interaction in the field of technological exchange.

As for the forms of cooperation, section III presents an extremely extensive list of them (exchange of scientific and technical information; short-term and long-term (more than 3 months) exchanges of visits and internships of scientists and specialists in research centers, higher educational institutions and academies of sciences of the States of the Parties for the implementation of scientific work; organization of joint seminars, symposiums, conferences and exhibitions on issues of mutual interest; implementation of joint scientific and technological research and development; creation of joint research centers and design bureaus, laboratories and research teams; exchange of technologies and know-how; use of the results of joint research and development, including the creation of joint high-tech enterprises in the Russian Federation and the Republic of India; other agreed forms).

Unlike the Agreement, paragraph 2 of this section defines the procedure for financing cooperation in accordance with the laws, rules and procedures of each country.

As an institutional basis for the implementation of the Comprehensive Program, a joint Russian-Indian council has been established, whose tasks are to consider and coordinate recommendations and proposals on issues related to creating the most favorable conditions for cooperation; determining organizational and financial conditions for the exchange of scientists; changing areas of scientific and technical cooperation within the framework of the Program; approving coordinators of activities in various fields cooperation , definition and approval of the topics of scientific and technical projects and financial conditions for their implementation. The Joint Council is accountable to the Intergovernmental Russian-Indian Commission on Trade, Economic, Scientific, Technical and Cultural Cooperation on the results of its activities. Statistics show that 71 institutes from Russia and 55 institutes and laboratories from India took part in the implementation of this program (Bokova T. The Future of Innovation: Russian-Indian Partnership in Science and Technology (05/02/2024) (https://infobrics.org/post/41081 /)).

In 2010, the program was extended for another ten years, namely until 2020 (Comprehensive Long-term Program of Cooperation in the field of science, technology and innovation between the Government of the Russian Federation and the Government of the Republic of India (New Delhi on December 21, 2010) (expired on December 31, 2020) (https://docs.cntd.ru/document/902264225 )). The document was based on the recognition of the growing importance of science and technology for the socio-economic development of both countries. The main task of the program is to increase the role of applied research, intensify cooperation in the field of high technologies, implement fundamental and applied research in order to create new technologies, equipment and materials based on them.

If we consider the goals of cooperation, then, in principle, they are identical to the formulations of the previous version of the Program. These include conducting joint research in promising areas of innovative research and development to solve urgent scientific and technological problems of mutual interest; industrial development of the results of scientific and technical cooperation; promotion of economic and industrial cooperation. These formulations clearly show the unity of scientific, technological, economic and industrial cooperation. As for the areas of cooperation aimed at implementing its results, as well as the areas of fundamental sciences, they remained the same (Section II "Areas of cooperation"). The same can be said about the forms of cooperation (Section III "Forms of cooperation").At the same time, there is a significant emphasis on promoting the creation of conditions for the joint commercialization of research and development results, and the formation of a mechanism for interaction in the field of technology transfer.

A new point is the encouragement of mutual participation in major applied programs that affect the socio-economic progress of the Russian Federation and the Republic of India. The parties expressed their intention to take the necessary steps to implement joint mega-projects in mutually agreed socio-economically important areas such as sustainable energy, affordable healthcare, informatics and informatization.

As before, the Parties decided to establish a joint Russian-Indian council for the implementation of the Program, whose tasks are as follows: consideration and coordination of recommendations and proposals on issues related to the creation of the most favorable conditions for cooperation; determination of organizational and financial conditions for the exchange of scientists and specialists; approval of forms of joint activities (research projects, seminars, exhibitions, technology demonstrations, etc.) for implementation within the framework of targeted financing; changing areas of scientific and technical cooperation; approval of focal points for cooperation; consideration of the effectiveness and sufficiency of existing infrastructure in managing various forms of cooperation. Development of recommendations on necessary changes in the infrastructure and ways to support it; other issues of mutual interest. It is quite noticeable that the scope of the Council's terms of reference has been significantly expanded. As in the Comprehensive Program for 2020-2010, the financial terms of cooperation are highlighted in a special way in the considered version of the Program (Section V. Financial conditions). According to the provisions of the section, cooperation within the framework of the Program will be carried out within the limits of financial resources allocated by the parties and in accordance with the legislation of the two countries. In addition, financial support can be provided to interested organizations in Russia and India.

The practical result of the implementation of the Comprehensive Program was the development of such a form of cooperation as conducting comprehensive joint R&D on the basis of Russian-Indian research centers in such areas as medical technology, laser technology, climatology, high-performance computing, etc. According to available information, since 2000, more than 500 bilateral R&D projects in the field of mathematics, mechanics, chemistry, physics, materials science, laser technology, electronics, oceanology, seismology have been supported as part of its implementation. Over 1,500 joint publications have been prepared, more than 10,000 scientific contacts have been established, about 3,000 exchange visits and more than 100 joint seminars have been held. In addition, since 2016, the Russian Science Foundation (hereinafter – RNF) has been conducting a competitive selection process from DST to support international Russian-Indian research teams. During this time, the parties have supported a total of 63 projects worth about 1.6 billion rubles (Bokova T. The Future of innovation: Russian-Indian Partnership in Science and Technology (05/02/2024) (https://infobrics.org/post/41081 /)).

The considered program is basic, but not the only one. The list of Russian-Indian programs includes:

• Cooperation programs in the field of basic science (DSTRFBR, ICMR-RFBR, DST-RSF);

• Cooperation programs in the field of applied science (DSTRMES, DBT-RMES);

• Cooperation program in the field of science, technology and innovation (DST-FASO);

• Cooperation program on Unified Technology Assessment and Accelerated commercialization between India and Russia (DST-FASIE);

• The India-Russia Innovation Bridge Program (IRBI);

• Faculty programs (GIAN, VAJRA);

• The BRICS STI Framework Program (DST-RFBR, RMES, FASIE) ^{[10, p. 3]}.

In modern conditions, such type of cooperation documents as memoranda have become widespread. Their functional purpose is to determine the areas of cooperation. A similar memorandum of cooperation between the Ministry of Education and Science of the Russian Federation and the Ministry of Science and Technology of the Government of India in the field of science, technology and innovation was concluded on December 24, 2012 during the fifth meeting of the Working Group on Science and Technology (Memorandum of Cooperation between the Ministry of Education and Science of the Russian Federation and the Ministry of Science and Technology of the Government of India in the field of Science, Technology and Innovation (New Delhi, December 24, 2012) (https://docs.cntd.ru/document/499014978 )). The Parties agreed to cooperate through the joint development and implementation of programs or projects based on protocols or independent agreements between the Ministry of Education and Science of the Russian Federation, the Ministry of Science and Technology of India and third parties concluded in the development of this Memorandum, which will specify the content of activities, obligations of the Parties and the budget of programs or projects. In paragraph 4, attention was paid to the financial aspects of cooperation, including the implementation of independent control over the expenditure of funds allocated for activities implemented within the framework of programs or projects.

In the development of the Memorandum of Understanding between the Ministry of Education and Science of Russia and the Ministry of Science and Technology of India (Ministry of Science & Technology, Government of India (https://most.gov.in/)) During the Russian-Indian summit held on October 21, 2013, interdepartmental documents were signed regulating the mechanism for organizing and holding joint competitions to support Russian-Indian research projects:

– The program of cooperation in the field of science, technology and innovation between DST and the Ministry of Education and Science of the Russian Federation for the period 2014-2017.

– The program of cooperation between the Department of Biotechnology of the Ministry of Science and Technology (DBT), the Government of the Republic of India and the Ministry of Education and Science of the Russian Federation for the period 2014-2017 in the field of life sciences and biotechnology.

Both programs involve the formation of mechanisms for the parity financing of joint Russian-Indian research projects.

The institutional mechanism of cooperation also includes the Intergovernmental Russian-Indian Commission on Trade, Economic, Scientific, Technical and Cultural Cooperation (hereinafter - IPC), which was established in 1994. It has a Working Group on Science and Technology. The main areas of cooperation within the Group are nuclear energy, space and laser technology, cancer treatment, radiophotonics, deep-sea research, new production technologies, high-performance computer modeling, high-energy materials, biotechnology and pharmaceuticals. It is also planned to develop scientific cooperation in the polar regions within the framework of joint climate and environmental projects. On this basis, it is planned to create a specialized bilateral center.

An important initiative within the framework of the 10th meeting of the Working Group on Science and Technology, held on February 26-28, 2018 (Scientific and technical cooperation between Russia and India is entering a new stage (03/27/2018) (https://zioc.ru/events/news-announcements/2018/nauchno-texnicheskoe-sotrudnichestvo-rossii-i-indii-vyixodit-na-novyij-etap)) The transition to a close partnership between key regulators and scientific and educational organizations of the two countries has begun. The Russian and Indian participants identified areas of interaction in matters of mutually beneficial cooperation, confirmed the existence of joint state priorities in a number of fields of science and technology and approved the roadmap for bilateral cooperation between the Russian Federation and the Republic of India in the identified priority areas. Thanks to such operational cooperation at the intergovernmental level, over the past few years it has been possible to hold a number of bilateral competitions to support joint Russian-Indian research, implement a number of scholarship programs and organize joint scientific events.

If we turn to the consideration of specific organizational structures within which bilateral cooperation is carried out, then in addition to various laboratories and research groups, both countries create joint research centers, universities and academies that have concluded bilateral cooperation agreements. Research projects are carried out on their basis, as well as professional contacts between scientists from both countries are carried out.

During the implementation of the Comprehensive Program, a Computer Research Center was established at the Institute of Design Automation of the Russian Academy of Sciences (Russia and India open a computer research center (08.12.1999) (https://lenta.ru/news/1999/12/08/india /)). With active cooperation with the Center for High-Performance Computing of the Department of Electronics of India, the Indian supercomputer PARAM-1000 was installed here, the software of which was created by Russian developers. The performance of the supercomputer was up to 72 billion operations per second. In June 2010, the Indo-Russian Scientific and Technical Center (IRSTC, RI STC) was established in Moscow as a structure promoting the joint development of innovative technologies. Then, in April 2012, the official opening of the Delhi branch of the Center took place. A notable result of the cooperation was the creation of the Indo-Russian Competence Center (Indo-Russian Competence Center (https://ristc.ru /)).

Currently, there are a number of joint centers in India – for seismology (New Delhi), biotechnology (Allahabad), powder metallurgy and new materials (Hyderabad), production of polyvaccines (Bulandshahr), and the study of gas hydrates (Chennai). The Indian-Russian Center for Geophysical Instrumentation operates in Chandigarh. Russian sensors with Indian digital recording devices made it possible to organize observation networks for earthquake forecasting, coordinated with the global network. The Institute of Nuclear Physics of the Siberian Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences, together with the Center for Advanced Technologies in Indore, with the participation of the Atomic Research Center in Bombay, created the industrial electron accelerator ILU-6 (Bokova T. The Future of Innovation: Russian-Indian Partnership in Science and Technology (05/02/2024) (https://infobrics.org/post/41081 /)).

An important milestone in cooperation between Russian and Indian universities was the signing on May 8, 2015 by 21 Russian and 9 Indian leading universities of the Declaration on the Establishment of the Russian-Indian Association of Universities (Declaration on the Establishment of the Russian-Indian Association of Universities (Moscow, May 8, 2015) (https://rin.tsu.ru/sites/default/files/deklaraciya_o_sozdanii_associacii_universitetov_rossii_i_indii.pdf)). The main goal is to create a platform for joint scientific and educational programs. In 2016, the members of the association began joint work on six projects supported by DST and RNF. At the same time, student exchanges began. The Association has become a platform for ensuring academic mobility of Russian scientists and teachers within the framework of such a program of the Indian government as the Global Academic Networks Initiative (GIAN). Within the framework of the program, scientists and teachers of Russian universities have the opportunity to give a course of lectures on the basis of Indian universities and scientific organizations. All expenses were borne by the Indian side (Bokova T. The Future of innovation: Russian-Indian Partnership in Science and Technology (05/02/2024) (https://infobrics.org/post/41081 /)).

If we characterize the cooperation in which specific Russian universities participate, then as an example we can cite the partnership of Peter the Great St. Petersburg Polytechnic University with leading universities in India, such as the Indian University of Technology (Bombay), the Indian Institute of Technology (Madras), Chandigarh University (Punjab), Ramaiah University of Applied Sciences, Institute of Birla Science and Technology, Universities and Institutes of Amity. Polytechnic University provides fruitful cooperation between scientific groups of Russia and India in such important areas as the Internet of Things, nanomaterials and nanostructures for applications in optics, photonics and spectroscopy; processing of microplastics using biotechnologies, etc. (The Polytechnic University has made proposals for the development of a roadmap for bilateral cooperation between Russia and India (https://ofko.spb.ru/politeh-vystupil-s-predlozheniyami-po-razvitiyu-dorozhnoj-karty-dvuhstoronnego-sotrudnichestva-rossii-i-indii/)). Fruitful cooperation was made possible thanks to the bilateral RFBR and RNF competitions implemented jointly with DST, networking as part of the BRICS Framework Program, as well as activities within the framework of the Association of Universities of Russia and India. At the 11th meeting of the Russian-Indian Working Group on Science and Technology, held in 2021, the Vice-rector noted that over the past five years, the university has submitted more than 20 joint applications with Indian partners, 6 of which were supported and implemented into large-scale joint projects (Polytech made proposals for the development of a roadmap for bilateral cooperation cooperation between Russia and India (https://ofko.spb.ru/politeh-vystupil-s-predlozheniyami-po-razvitiyu-dorozhnoj-karty-dvuhstoronnego-sotrudnichestva-rossii-i-indii/)). More than 25% of the applications were approved, which indicates the thoroughness of scientific research and the high level of collaboration between polytechnics and Indian scientists.

If we turn to the consideration of cooperation between the academies of sciences, it should be pointed out that in 1996 an Agreement on scientific cooperation and Exchange of Scientists was concluded between the Russian Academy of Sciences (RAS) and the Indian National Academy of Sciences for 1996-2000. (Agreement on Scientific Cooperation and Exchange of Scientists between the Russian Academy of Sciences (RAS) and the Indian National Academy of Sciences for 1996-2000 (Delhi, March 30, 1996) (as amended on December 30, 2021) (https://www.ras.ru/win/DB/show_int.asp?P=ln-ru.id-85443 )), aimed at supporting cooperation between scientists and scientific institutions of both countries in all areas of basic scientific research, primarily in mutually agreed scientific fields (Annex No. 1 to the Agreement) on the basis of coordination of scientific research and unification scientists from cooperating institutes for the implementation of joint scientific projects. At the same time, direct forms of cooperation and individual scientific activity are not excluded. In fact, the main attention is paid to the organizational issues of business trips of Indian and Russian scientists.

During the Russian-Indian summit in November 2003 (Russian-Indian high-level talks were held in the Kremlin (November 12, 2003) (http://kremlin.ru/events/president/news/29730 )) An agreement on scientific cooperation and Exchange of Scientists was signed between the Russian Academy of Sciences and the Indian National Academy of Sciences (Agreement on Scientific Cooperation and Exchange of Scientists between the Russian Academy of Sciences (RAS) and the Indian National Academy of Sciences (Moscow, November 12, 2003) (https://docs.cntd.ru/document/901882110 )), aimed at facilitating the establishment of direct links between individual scientists, laboratories and institutes through the mediation of the academies of the two countries. The conditions for the exchange of specialists between the Academies of Sciences of Russia and India are specified in the Protocol on Scientific Cooperation between the Russian Academy of Sciences and the Department of Science and Technology of the Government of India (Protocol on Scientific Cooperation between the Russian Academy of Sciences and the Department of Science and Technology of the Government of India (Moscow, November 12, 2023) (https://docs.cntd.ru/document/901882116 )).

One of the key aspects of the ISTC is not only the problem of protecting the results of intellectual activity and protecting the rights to them, but also the problem of financing. As such, the development of Russian-Indian scientific and technological cooperation has become possible thanks to funding from various sources.

For example, within the framework of the Federal Target Program "Research and development in priority areas of development of the scientific and technological complex of Russia for 2014-2021" (Federal target program "Research and development in priority areas of development of the scientific and technological complex of Russia for 2014-2021" (Approved by Decree of the Government of the Russian Federation dated May 21, 2013 N 426) (as amended on December 30, 2021) (https://docs.cntd.ru/document/499022223 )) 15 bilateral Russian-Indian projects were supported, including 11 projects under special cooperation programs. Within the framework of the above-mentioned joint program between the Ministry of Education and Science of the Russian Federation and DST, 6 joint projects were selected for financing out of 44 applications related to environmental sciences, energy, ICT, nanotechnology and new materials, engineering, etc.

In the process of interaction between the Ministry of Education and Science of the Russian Federation and the Indian Department of Biotechnology, a competition was announced to support projects in the following areas: bioenergy, nanobiotechnology, biological equipment and affordable diagnostic equipment in the field of health and agriculture. According to the results of the competition, out of 14 applications, 5 joint projects received financial support (Scientific and Technical cooperation between Russia and India (06/10/2015) (https://russiaindiabusiness.com/ru/nauchno-tekhnicheskoe-sotrudnichestvo-rossii-i-indii /)).

The central financial mechanism of the Comprehensive Program was the Russian Foundation for Basic Research (hereinafter – RFBR), which in 2007 and 2015 signed agreements with DST on bilateral grant programs. A similar agreement was concluded in 2014 with the Indian Medical Research Council. In addition, the RFBR provided support in the form of funding for the BRICS Framework Program on Science and Technology. Since 2007, the annual program of joint competitions of DST and RFBR projects has been implemented with funding up to 20 thousand dollars from each side for one project (India and Russia have implemented hundreds of scientific and technical projects) (08/15/2016)(https://rg.ru/2016/08/15/indiia-i-rossiia-realizovali-sotni-nauchno-tehnicheskih-proektov.html)).

In 2018, the results of a joint research project competition were summed up. According to information sources, 173 applications were submitted for the competition. According to the results of the examination conducted independently by the Russian and Indian sides, 48 projects were supported (Results of the joint RFBR research project competition – Department of Science and Technology of the Government of India IND_a 2018 (https://web.archive.org/web/20221204125704/https://www.rfbr.ru/rffi/ru/rffi_contest_results/o_2073960)). In 2019, according to the results of the RFBR competition, for which 248 applications were submitted, 43 Russian-Indian projects received grants of up to 2 million rubles from the RFBR (07.10.2019) (More than 40 Russian-Indian projects will receive grants of up to 2 million rubles from the RFBR (https://www.rfbr.ru/press-center/press_about/5449 /)). Equivalent financing was expected from the Indian side. Among the winning projects are projects to study the paleoclimate and evolution of landscapes in the center and south of the East European Plain and the Himalayas, improving the quality of supercomputer applications, genomic and metagenomic studies of freshwater sponges on Lake Baikal and in India, etc. In 2019, a new competition was held for projects that were implemented in 2019-2021 (RFBR – India (DNT) 2019: competition for the best projects of interdisciplinary basic scientific research (https://www.spbstu.ru/media/announcements/competitions_grants/rffi-indiya-dnt-2019-konkurs-na-luchshie-proekty-mezhdistsiplinarnykh-fundamentalnykh-nauchnykh-issl/)). Cooperation with India continued further when the RFBR was transformed into the Russian Center for Scientific Information (RCNI. On Russian-Indian Cooperation (07/31/2023) (https://www.rfbr.ru/press-center/news_events/6984 /)).

In 2015, a cooperation agreement was signed between DST and the Russian Science Foundation (RNF). 170 joint project applications were submitted for the first competition of joint projects, announced at the end of 2015, 17 of which received grant funding for research for 2016-2018 (Bokova T. The Future of Innovation: Russian-Indian Partnership in Science and Technology (05/02/2024) (https://infobrics.org/post/41081 /)). Since 2016, the Russian Academy of Sciences, together with Indian partners from DST, has been conducting competitive selection on an ongoing basis to support international Russian-Indian research teams. During this time, the parties have supported a total of 63 projects worth about 1.6 billion rubles. As a result of the implementation of these projects, about 1,000 publications have been published in reputable scientific journals. On June 1, 2018, the second competition of Russian-Indian applications in all areas of research, except for social sciences and humanities, was announced. Indeed, in a special study it was revealed that the proportion of scientific works on the natural science profile significantly exceeds the proportion of scientific works on socio-social and humanitarian topics ^{[11, p. 110]}. The noted indicators signal certain flaws in the Russian-Indian ISTC, namely the insignificant degree of cooperation in the field of social sciences and humanities.

2. Russian-Indian scientific and technological cooperation: successes and challenges

The ISTC of Russia and India most closely intersects with economic and industrial-economic cooperation, which has become the subject of special scientific research ^{[3, pp. 293-303; 12, pp. 18-19]}. Historically, since the Soviet period, the locomotive of scientific cooperation between the two countries has been military-technical cooperation, involving the joint production and modernization of military equipment ^[13]. Examples of "deep" cooperation are quite noticeable in the military-technical sphere. This should include the successful operation of the BrahMos joint venture (BrahMos AeroSpace (https://brahmos.com/ru-home.php )). But if in the 2010s Russia was the exclusive supplier of military equipment to India, now other states have become its competitors, for example, the United States and Israel, which are increasing their efforts in this direction ^[14]. This leads to a reduction in the number of Russian-Indian cooperation projects. However, problems in the development of cooperation also clearly appear in the aviation industry. Thus, plans for the assembly of SSJ and narrow-body medium-haul passenger MS-21 aircraft in India have not been implemented.

Against this background, cooperation in the healthcare and pharmaceutical sectors is quite successful. Thanks to cooperation in the field of laser technologies, a specialized anti-tuberculosis center has been opened in India, where the disease is treated with lasers, which were developed by specialists of the Lebedev Physical Institute of the Russian Academy of Sciences together with Indian colleagues (Laser sees the future. Hundreds of bilateral scientific and technical projects have been implemented (08/15/2016) (https://rscf.ru/en/news/media/lazer_vidit_budushchee_realizovany_sotni_dvustoronnikh_nauchno_tekhnicheskikh_proektov/)). In the field of medicine, cooperation between Russia and India is aimed at exchanging experience and technologies in the treatment of various diseases in the field of oncology, cardiology and neurosurgery. The exchange of medical personnel and joint research contribute to the development of medical science and the improvement of the quality of medical care in both countries.

For quite a long time, since the Soviet era, India has been a major supplier of generics to Russia. In 2023, the volume of exports amounted to 293.9 million packages (Generics and biosimilars: what you need to know about the pharmaceutical industry in India (09/05/2024)(https://www.rbc.ru/industries/news/669135b69a794775c18c7d96)). Cooperation is not always limited to the supply of finished products. Joint development and joint production of pharmaceutical products have become an important form of interaction in this area. Significant results were obtained in immunology. In particular, new generation immunomodulators have been developed. Joint development of a hepatitis C vaccine and work on the creation of crops resistant to fungal diseases have been resumed. The first Indian polio vaccine has been jointly developed. In addition, a National Vaccine Production Center has been established in India, operating on the basis of Russian technologies (Bharat Immunological and Biologicals Corporation Limited/(BIBCOL) (Bharat Immunological and Biologicals Corporation Limited (https://www.india.gov.in/bharat-immunologicals-and-biologicals-corporation-limited )). The center produces 100 million doses of vaccine and fully meets the needs of the country. BIBCOL is under the administrative control of the Biotechnology Department of the Ministry of Science and Technology of India.

As for the cooperative industrial cooperation, separate projects related to the localization of production in the Russian Federation have been implemented. And yet, despite the experience of joint biomedical research during the Soviet period, until recently, bilateral relations did not differ in depth. The picture partially changed during the COVID-19 pandemic, when the Russian Sputnik V and Sputnik Lite received regulatory approval in India and their mass production was organized at the facilities of the Blood Serum Institute of India. As follows from the above brief overview, the spectrum of interaction is quite specialized and does not cover other areas of biomedical research and pharmaceutical production.

At the time, in paragraph 30 of the Joint Statement of the leaders of the two countries in 2018 ("Russia –India: a reliable partnership in a changing world". Joint statement by the President of the Russian Federation V.V. Putin and Prime Minister of the Republic of India N. Modi (Delhi, October 5, 2018) (http://www.kremlin.ru/supplement/5343 )), it was noted that the parties agreed to continue cooperation in the field of ICT, namely in the field of development and production of electronic systems, software development of supercomputers, e-government algorithms, network security, Internet of Things, standardization, radio control and regulation of the use of the radio frequency spectrum. In addition, the parties decided to continue mutual support and achieve a "synergy effect" in these areas at various venues, including BRICS and the International Telecommunication Union.

In fact, commercial interest in the digital products of Russian companies is quite noticeable (a system for unhindered charging of trucks on the roads, smart navigation and ship tracking systems, transport and urban security systems, biometric systems and identification tools). In 2018, RT-Invest Transport Systems entered into an agreement with the National Highway Administration of India (NHAI) on the introduction of a toll collection system on highways (an analogue of the Russian Platon system) (Platon was sold abroad (02/12/2019) (https://stimul.online/news/platon-prodali-za-rubezh -/)). As for joint software development, Internet markets and other information technology sectors, cooperation was not observed at all, including due to the lack of truly global plans for companies in both countries, lack of capital and the manifestation of elements of competition.

Certain prospects for research and production and technological cooperation are characteristic of interaction in the energy sector, which is characterized by a knowledge-intensive and high-tech nature. Current cooperation includes the development of cooperation between Russian and Indian energy companies. Such cooperation is carried out, for example, in such a form as investing. Indian investments are directed to the Russian companies Vankorneft and Taas-Yuryakh Neftegazodobycha in Russia. In turn, PJSC NK Rosneft participates in the capital of Essar Oil. The mutual interest of Russian and Indian companies can be traced in the development of cooperation not only in the field of supplies, but also in the production of liquefied natural gas (LNG). The participants in this direction are PJSC NOVATEK and Indian energy companies.

In the context of anti-Russian sanctions, which have been imposed since 2014 and have significantly affected the Russian energy sector, the implementation of prospects for joint development of oil fields in Russia, including its Arctic shelf, as well as the joint implementation of possible projects on the Pechora shelf and in the The Sea of Okhotsk. In the context of the current energy transition, the seriousness of intentions for cooperation in the energy sector implies expanding cooperation by including new areas such as hydropower, renewable energy sources and energy efficiency, which fully correlates with efforts to reduce the negative impact of the energy sector on the environment and the climate of the planet.

An important aspect of the strategic partnership between the two countries, involving assistance in ensuring India's energy security, as well as fulfilling its obligations under the Paris Climate Agreement, is Russian-Indian cooperation in the field of nuclear energy. This area is a traditional area of bilateral technological cooperation (Agreement between the Government of the Russian Federation and the Government of the Republic of India on cooperation in the construction of additional nuclear power units at the Kudankulam site, as well as in the construction of nuclear power plants according to Russian projects at new sites in the Republic of India (New Delhi, December 5, 2008) (as amended from 08.02.2024) (https://docs.cntd.ru/document/902190507 )). Significant progress has been made in the construction of the six remaining nuclear power units of the Kudankulam NPP; efforts are underway to localize the production of components, as well as to manufacture equipment for nuclear power plants. The interaction takes place in accordance with the Action Plan for Prioritizing Cooperation in the field of nuclear energy (Russia and India signed on October 5 an action plan for prioritizing and implementing areas of cooperation in the field of nuclear energy (06.10.2018) (http://www.atominfo.ru/newst/a0344.htm )). A significant number of Russian and Indian companies representing various industrial and technological sectors are involved in the implementation of the projects. The accumulated experience of cooperation is undergoing significant scaling, which is reflected not only in negotiations on the construction of other nuclear power plants in India, but also in the joint implementation of the Ruppur NPP project in Bangladesh. Since nuclear technologies are used in other fields in the modern world, it should be pointed out that Rosatom supplies India with isotopes (germanium-68, gallium-68, etc.) that are used in medicine.

Due to the fact that Russia and India are the leading space powers, Russian-Indian cooperation in this field has a long-term and mutually beneficial character. A number of directions are being implemented here. One of them is the preparation of manned missions. Successful tests of the functioning of the crew compartment and the emergency evacuation system of the crew of the Indian Gaganian spacecraft were carried out in wind tunnels at Glavkosmos facilities (Glavkosmos is testing the promising Indian Gaganyaan spacecraft (03/23/2023) (https://www.interfax.ru/russia/892614 )). The training of the Viomanauts took place in 2020-2022 at the Gagarin Cosmonaut Training Center (Indian cosmonauts completed training in Russia (03/22/2021) (https://www.interfax.ru/russia/757264 )). Another direction is the mutual placement of ground–based data collection stations coming from the Russian GLONASS navigation satellite system and the Indian regional NavIC navigation satellite system. Cooperation in the field of satellite grouping of remote sensing of the Earth of the BRICS countries is a very promising area.

One of the newest areas of cooperation is the Arctic. It includes the joint development of the Arctic shelf, the search and development of new deposits of natural resources, and the joint exploitation of new hydrocarbon resources ^[15]. In addition, mutual visits to stations in Antarctica, which both Russia and India have, have been established. The International Conference on Antarctic Research, held in January 2020 at the Indian Bharati station, was attended by Russian scientists from the Progress station.

So, cooperation in the scientific and technological sphere of the two countries is characterized by certain progress. However, the expert community expresses the opinion that it has the character of "selective" cooperation, i.e. it is fragmented (Danilin I. Russian-Indian cooperation in the field of high technologies: through thorns (02/20/2024) (https://russiancouncil.ru/analytics-and-comments/analytics/rossiysko-indiyskoe-sotrudnichestvo-v-sfere-vysokikh-tekhnologiy-cherez-ternii/)). This is due to the "failures" of cooperation that were observed in the 1990s. As a result, the current cooperation is inferior to the level of cooperation that took place in the 1980s. From our point of view, indeed, not all areas of the ISTC planned in the Comprehensive Program have been fully implemented. As a result, our countries, in relation to each other, are not among the main partner states in the field of ISTC. There are also certain failures in the implementation of production and technological projects, for example, in the field of aircraft construction, which from the very beginning were positioned as cooperative and assumed a significant amount of bilateral investments. Against the background of a rather impressive number of ongoing projects, scientific and technological cooperation remains fragmented due to the incompleteness of the implementation of possible contacts. This kind of picture reflects the nature of trade and economic cooperation between the two countries, which is largely limited to contracts for the supply of a particular range of high-tech products, and is not aimed at their joint production.

Despite the fact that the specifics of the intergovernmental agenda quite traditionally predetermines the scaling of scientific research in the military-technological, electric power, oil industry and other technological sectors, there are certain limitations inherent in scientific and technological cooperation between Russia and India. It is quite accurate to conclude that "one of the most promising and at the same time difficult areas of relations between India and Russia is cooperation in the field of science and technology (S&T)" (Zakharov A. Prospects for India-Russia Scientific and Technological Cooperation (12/30/2024) (https://diplomatist.com/2019/12/30/prospects-for-india-russia-scientific-and-technological-cooperation/)). A number of objective limitations indicate that this is indeed the case.

Firstly, these are logistical constraints. The development of cooperation between Russia and India in the field of STI, as well as in the trade and economic sphere, is seriously complicated by the factor of geographical remoteness of the states. There are still problems in ensuring transport links between Russia and India. Thus, "the route through the Suez Canal to the ports of the Baltic Sea is most susceptible to both geopolitical risks and purely technical problems. The North-South transport corridor to Astrakhan is not able to unload the prospective volume of cargo" ^[16]. However, this factor can be attributed to limitations rather than barriers. One should agree with the idea that geographical proximity as a factor in the development of international economic cooperation remains in the past, since the new format of international partnership primarily takes into account the commonality of strategic ideas and geopolitical principles, and not the contiguity of territories ^[17]. In addition, it seems correct to assume that in the development of scientific cooperation between India and Russia, the factor of territorial remoteness can be compensated by similarity in the priorities of the development of national scientific and technological complexes ^{[11, p. 111]}. Of course, joint large-scale scientific and technical projects require the supply of equipment and technologies, and also involve an intensive exchange of resources. Therefore, it is extremely necessary to solve the existing logistical problem, as well as to search for other ways of transport communication.

Secondly, there are financial obstacles in the way of a successful ISTC of the two countries. As already noted, the issues of financing bilateral cooperation are reflected in various programs of scientific and technological cooperation between Russia and India. They provide for the possibility of financing through a variety of agencies on each side. The funding portfolio covers basic and interdisciplinary research, now complemented by innovative developments. The amount of financing within the framework of supported application projects should be provided on the terms of equal co-financing in accordance with the terms of national regulations and tender documentation. However, of the six projects supported in 2017 under the Program of Cooperation in the field of science, Technology and Innovation between DST and the Ministry of Science and Education of the Russian Federation for the period 2014-2017, the implementation of two projects was discontinued due to lack of funding from the Indian side.

It should be borne in mind that the problems in the field of financing are closely related to the currency problems existing in Russian-Indian trade and economic relations. These problems complicate the implementation of scientific and technological contacts and prevent the conclusion of long-term agreements on the joint development of innovations. The national currency of India is not traded on the Moscow Stock Exchange, which limits the implementation of foreign exchange transactions. As a result, the unsettled commodity-money relations between Russia and India affect the slowdown in the flow of goods ^[18-21].

Financial problems in the field of mutual settlements complicate the conclusion of long-term scientific and technological contracts between Russia and India due to the unstable exchange rate of the Russian ruble and the Indian rupee. Back in 2007, the first Deputy Chairman of the Government of the Russian Federation, S.B. Ivanov, pointed out the expediency of including protective currency clauses in intergovernmental agreements between Russia and India, allowing to neutralize currency fluctuations ^[22].

In addition to these, there are other difficulties in the functioning of financial mechanisms of bilateral cooperation. For example, in India there is a two-stage procedure for supporting and financing joint projects, whereas in Russia this procedure is one-stage ^{[23, p. 50]}. This means that after making a joint decision on which projects to support and fixing such a decision in a protocol signed by both Indian and Russian funding agencies, the Indian side submits the selected projects for a second round of internal approval. At the second stage, some conditions, such as the amount of the requested budget or the period of project implementation, can sometimes be changed unilaterally. This causes inconvenience in terms of changing the content of the project and concluding additional agreements between the project partners, and therefore between the Russian partner and the Russian financing agency.

Of course, the fragmentation and related limitations of cooperation are recognized by the Indian and Russian sides. According to Indian experts, "the flip side of the history of Indian-Russian scientific and technical cooperation is that in the 21st century, cooperation has not reached the intensity that it reached in the first half of the 1970s. This indicates and speaks of untapped potential" ^{[24, p. 82]}. Russian experts argue in a similar way. Thus, A. Zakharov points out that for a long time cooperation in the field of science and technology was carried out in the format of a comprehensive program. However, over the past decade, programmatic cooperation has gradually lost its momentum. Therefore, the Joint Statement of the leaders of India and Russia, issued after the bilateral summit in October 2018 in Delhi, suggested the revival of a Comprehensive Program. Taking into account the need to maintain a high degree of intensity of cooperation, the parties made further efforts aimed at expanding and deepening cooperation. The desire to increase the volume of scientific and technological ties is carried out in two directions - bilateral and multilateral.

During the visit of Prime Minister N. Modi to Moscow on December 1, 2021, a Roadmap for cooperation in the field of science, technology and innovation was signed between the Ministry of Science and Higher Education of the Russian Federation and DST (Russian-Indian documents signed for the meeting of President of the Russian Federation V.V. Putin with Prime Minister of the Republic of India N. Modi (December 6, 2021) (https://www.kremlin.ru/supplement/5746 )). It replaced the Comprehensive Long-term Program of Russian-Indian Cooperation in the field of science, technology and innovation. The document defines the obligations of the parties and relevant areas of cooperation, such as biotechnology, artificial intelligence, quantum technologies, cyberphysical systems, oceanography, medical sciences, fundamental and applied physics. The document, along with the consolidation of relevant and priority areas for interaction, defines the obligations of the parties on appropriate organizational and financial support.

In general, both states intend to further promote partnership in the field of basic research and scientific and technological innovation and entrepreneurship. Such an intention should be expressed in facilitating the creation of enterprises, launching acceleration programs, providing grant support for innovations, and localizing innovative industries through innovation clusters and technology parks in both countries. There is an actualization of the innovative discourse in scientific and technological cooperation, which expresses one of the leading trends in modern ISTC.

It should be noted that in the period 2021-2022, not all the envisaged measures were fully implemented. But to assert the absence of a breakthrough in terms of costs and investments, as well as the absence of truly significant bilateral programs (Danilin I. Russian-Indian cooperation in the field of high technologies: through thorns (02/20/2024) (https://russiancouncil.ru/analytics-and-comments/analytics/rossiysko-indiyskoe-sotrudnichestvo-v-sfere-vysokikh-tekhnologiy-cherez-ternii/)) It is still premature, especially considering the initiatives that Russia proposed in 2023-2024.

A certain compensation for the unrealized potential of bilateral cooperation is the participation of Russia and India in multilateral agreements on scientific and technical cooperation ^[25]. In addition to bilateral relations, Russia and India are strategic partners within the framework of the BRICS and the SCO. Within the framework of the BRICS, India oversees such areas as geospatial technologies and their applications, namely the development of ICT and decision-making systems based on geospatial technologies for managing risks associated with natural disasters and climate change, as well as for appropriate flexible development planning in order to ensure a sustainable living environment. Together with Russia, India is responsible for cooperation in the field of materials science and nanotechnology, as well as in the field of photonics. Both India and Russia are actively involved in the implementation of the BRICS Framework Program on Science and Technology, aimed at supporting joint research projects in priority areas. The initiative is aimed at facilitating cooperation between researchers and institutions within the framework of consortia, which should include partners from at least three BRICS countries.

3. Prerequisites for the attitude towards India as a promising scientific and technological partner

The intensification of the considered area of cooperation between the two countries fully meets their national interests. For obvious reasons, it is Russia, of course, that shows a much greater degree of interest in intensifying cooperation. This is due to the noticeable limitation of the range of major partner States in the scientific field due to sanctions. The turn towards India as a promising partner state has also been noted by foreign experts. In their joint article, foreign authors single out India, along with China and Brazil, as an area of the ISTC that is not affected by sanctions ^[26]. However, the article does not answer the question of to what extent these areas can compensate for the damage to Russian and world science caused by the suspension of Russia's cooperation with states that have imposed economic, and along with them, scientific sanctions.

The reason for turning to India as one of the directions of the Russian foreign policy's turn to the East is not only the existing groundwork in scientific and technical relations and actively developing relations of a particularly privileged strategic partnership, but also the dynamic development of the Indian STI sector, as well as a high level of its internationalization. If at one time the USSR was a key partner of India, at least in terms of military and technological development, at present India, being a member of various scientific and technological international alliances, actively cooperates in all geographical directions. Therefore, Russia faces the task of consolidating India's interest in cooperation with our country, as well as the task of finding new points of contact between the scientific and technological sectors of the two countries in order to achieve a high degree of scientific and technological competitiveness at the international level. Therefore, as never before, the thematic area of research on the development of the Indian STI sector and the relevant state scientific and technical policy in the unity of its national and international dimensions is being updated. As it is rightly noted in the expert community, "India is an exceptional state that achieves high economic performance due to its focus on building intellectual capital, and not on exploiting natural resources" (Indian Technical and Economic Cooperation Program (https://www.indianembassy-moscow.gov.in/ru/russia-and-itec.php )).

According to the latest version of the Global Innovation Index, India ranks 34th in terms of the dynamics of the development of the research and development (R&D) sector, 9th and 28th in terms of the impact of knowledge and its dissemination, respectively (Global Innovation Index 2024 Unlocking the Promise of Social Entrepreneurship. P. 39 (https://ict.moscow/static/pdf/files/wipo-pub-2000-2024-en-global-innovation-index-2024.pdf )). However, other indicators related to the level of human capital, access to ICT, and the degree of maturity of the institutional environment for innovative development are not so high. It is quite clear that synchronizing all indicators at a high level is a very difficult task for such a huge country as India.

These indicators are the result of the scientific, technical and innovation policy pursued by the Indian Government. Its key goal is to improve the standard of living of the population. An important role is played by such a goal as the country's global leadership on the world stage, including leadership in setting the agenda for global scientific and technological development. To this end, India is strengthening the innovative vector of science and technology policy, focusing on innovation, startup ecosystems and strengthening ties within the so-called Triple Helix ^[27].

This policy is evolving in the context of trends in national and global scientific and technological development (Kaushik A., Chagun Basha B., Ganesan L. Science Technology and Innovation (STI) Policies in India: a Flashback(02.01.2020) (https://indiabioscience.org/columns/indian-scenario/science-technology-and-innovation-sti-policies-in-india-a-flashback)). Thus, a feature of the program guide in the field of scientific and technological policy (hereinafter referred to as policy) in 2003 (Government of India. Ministry of Science and Technology. Science and Technology Policy 2003 (https://indiabioscience.org/media/articles/STP-2003.pdf)) (hereinafter referred to as STP) was the involvement of representatives of the STI sector in the process of forming appropriate policies, as well as the consolidation of the investment indicator in this sector in the amount of 2% of GDP. The directions of STP–2003 included the following: modernization of infrastructure, expansion of the range of STI, formation of new mechanisms for financing basic research, stimulating the contribution of the scientific diaspora to the development of the Indian ecosystem of STI, etc. Special attention was paid to the development of scientific diplomacy and ISTC with developing countries of the South. Despite the fact that by the early 2010s the targets had not been achieved (instead of 2% of GDP, only 0.7% was allocated to the sector), India still managed to increase the number of publications, create a large array of startups, strengthen patent activity and ensure sustainable human potential growth.

The years 2010-2020 were declared in India as the decade of innovation, transition to a knowledge-based economy, and entry into the top five world scientific powers. The Science, Technology and Innovation Policy of 2013 (Government of India. Ministry of Science and Technology. Science, Technology and Innovation policy 2013. (https://dst.gov.in/sites/default/files/STI%20Policy%202013-English.pdf)) (hereinafter – STIP 2013). A distinctive feature of the new policy was the course towards improving the innovation ecosystem, as well as the focus on establishing a strong link between STI and the socio-economic priorities of the country's development, including in the field of agriculture, water sector, health, environment and infrastructure. A quite noticeable result of this policy was the expansion of India's participation in global mega-scientific initiatives such as the Laser Interferometric Gravitational Wave Observatory (LIGO), the Large Hadron Collider (LHC – CERN), the International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor (ITER) and the Square Kilometer Array (SKA), etc.

As a result of the implementation of these policies in the field of STI, India has achieved tremendous success. But, at the same time, the fundamental problems of national development, such as poverty and unsanitary conditions, have not been solved. Therefore, based on the continued conviction that it is impossible to solve these problems without STI, which are also the basis of a new phase of economic development, the Government of India adopted a new guiding policy in 2020 (Science, Technology, and Innovation Policy 2020. Background Note (https://dst.gov.in/sites/default/files/STIP_2020_Background_Note_0.pdf ) (hereinafter – STIP–2020). STIP 2020 aims to include India in the top three global scientific powers by doubling research and development spending. The new policy seeks to take into account the shortcomings of STIP–2013, such as the vagueness of goals in relation to the real situation ^[28], the lack of significant commitments from the public sector in the field of research and development ^[29], a linear approach to understanding innovation and the lack of consideration for the nuances of the development of the Indian economy ^[30], the lack of clearly formulated principles of an inclusive innovation ecosystem ^[31], the lack of a well-thought-out implementation process and evaluation procedures ^[32].

Unlike the previous version, in STIP 2020, increased attention is paid to the areas of implementation of key ideas of national scientific, technological and innovative development, intensification of private sector involvement, and improvement of assessment procedures. In general, despite some criticisms regarding goals such as doubling the number of full-time researchers and increasing research and development costs, the document was enthusiastically received by the expert community, whose representatives put forward proposals to improve the scientific, technological and innovative development of India ^{[33, p. 36-38]}.

The reviewed policies are basic and complemented by industry policies (Kaushik A., Chagun Basha B., Ganesan L. Science Technology and Innovation (STI) Policies in India: a Flashback (02.01.2020) (https://indiabioscience.org/columns/indian-scenario/science-technology-and-innovation-sti-policies-in-india-a-flashback)).

In addition to the Ministry of Science and Technology of the Government of the Republic of India, the Council of Scientific and Industrial Research, functioning under this Ministry (Council of Scientific & Industrial Research (https://www.csir.res.in /)). The Council is a modern scientific research organization that has an information knowledge base on research and development in various scientific and technological fields (oceanography, geophysics, chemical synthesis, drug production, genomics, biotechnology and nanotechnology, aeronautics, instrumentation, environmental protection, ICT). The Council has developed a dynamic network that unites 37 national laboratories, 39 information and educational centers, and 3 innovation complexes. It is impossible not to point to the National Innovation Council, established in 2010 (National Innovation Council/NIC (https://www.india.gov.in/website-national-innovation-council )).

India is characterized by a desire to develop the most promising areas of STI, which is supported by active work on the formation of a base of highly qualified resources necessary for the implementation of the flagship programs of the Government of India in the field of renewable energy, smart cities, digital transformation, cognitive science, the transport system of the future, inexpensive medical devices, space research, data science, ocean research and seas, disaster management, etc. In fact, India has not only developed as a market for trade, but has also successfully created an ideal ecosystem to absorb the world's skilled resources. This largely justifies Russia's desire to develop academic cooperation with it.

As for the ISTC, back on September 15, 1964, the Government of India launched the process of implementing the Indian Technical and Economic Cooperation (ITEC) Program (Indian Technical & Economic Cooperation (ITEC) (https://www.itecgoi.in/index )), aimed at providing cooperation and technical assistance to developing countries. The Indian Technical and Economic Cooperation program implies interaction and mutually beneficial partnership. Specialists and representatives of ITEC partner countries are given the opportunity to take unique training courses in various research and innovation centers in India, which allow them not only to acquire professional skills, but also prepare them for life in a more globalized world. 47 special educational institutions have been established, in which 280 short-, medium- and long-term courses are taught throughout the year. The training program is demand-driven, and the choice of subjects is determined by the interest of working specialists from partner countries in a wide range of specialties and disciplines. Training is offered in various subjects – accounting, auditing, banking and finance, management, computer work, advanced computing, information technology, telecommunications, labor issues, entrepreneurship development, small and medium-sized business development, rural development, English, mass communications, educational planning and management, instrument design, pharmaceuticals, education and research, textiles, environment and renewable energy, etc.

The ITEC program is fully funded by the Government of India. All expenses related to the training program, such as tuition fees, accommodation allowance, book allowance, cost of study trips, emergency medical care, as well as return airfare, are borne by the Government of India.

Russia has been participating in the Program since 1993. According to statistics, over 1,500 Russian citizens have completed various ITEC courses, some of which specifically promote contacts between Indian entrepreneurs and a new generation of Russian executives, whose familiarity with management and technological educational institutions in India will increase their potential in the industrial and financial sectors. The most popular ITEC courses are in banking, business development, small enterprises, management and diplomacy. The Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Russian Federation plays an important role in attracting the attention of the regions/republics of the Russian Federation to the ITEC program. Some Russian journalists have been trained in journalism at the Indian Institute of Mass Communications.

4. Intensification of Russian-Indian scientific and technological cooperation in the context of anti-Russian sanctions in 2022-2024.

Due to the complication of Russia's participation in the ISTC in the western direction, there is the emergence of a new round of Russian-Indian relations. The legal framework is represented by relevant bilateral agreements of various levels. The organizational framework is set by the Roadmap of Russian-Indian cooperation in the field of science, technology and innovation in 2021. Strategic "targeting", as recorded in strategic policy documents, remains important. In particular, attention is paid to these issues in the Joint Statement of the Leaders of the Russian Federation and the Republic of India on the Development of Strategic Directions of Russian-Indian economic Cooperation until 2030, adopted during the 22nd annual Russian-Indian Summit held in Moscow on July 8-9, 2024 (Joint Statement of the Leaders of the Russian Federation and the Republic of India on the development of strategic directions Russian-Indian Economic Cooperation until 2030 (Moscow, July 9, 2024) (http://kremlin.ru/supplement/6169 )). In paragraph 7 of the Statement, the areas of cooperation included the promotion of investment attraction and the implementation of joint projects in various fields of the digital economy, science and research, educational exchanges and internships for employees of high-tech companies. In addition, the commitment was confirmed to assist in the creation of new joint (subsidiary) companies, as well as to provide them with a favorable tax regime. Paragraph 9 provides for the development of cooperation in the humanitarian field, consistent expansion of cooperation in education, science and technology, culture, tourism, sports, health and other areas.

These areas of cooperation are set out in more detail in the Joint Statement on the results of the XXII Russian-Indian Annual Summit "Russia–India: a Strong and Expanding Partnership" (Moscow, July 9, 2024) (Joint Statement on the results of the XXII Russian-Indian annual Summit "Russia–India: a Strong and Expanding Partnership" (Moscow, 9 July 2024) (http://www.kremlin.ru/supplement/6168 )). In the section "Cooperation in the field of education, science and technology", the Parties noted the successful implementation of the Roadmap for Cooperation in the field of science, technology and innovation in 2021, including the implementation of Russian-Indian research projects carried out by ministries and scientific foundations of the two countries, stressed the importance of cooperation in the field of science, technology and innovation, and They also confirmed mutual interest in developing partnerships between educational and scientific organizations, including the implementation of various forms of academic mobility, educational programs and research projects, as well as cooperation on the opening of branches of interested Russian educational and scientific organizations in India.

As follows from paragraph 39, the Parties agreed to focus on the commercialization of technologies and the provision of support throughout the implementation of joint projects of economic and social importance. As a promising initiative, it was proposed to explore the possibility of establishing international centers for innovative entrepreneurship and inter-cluster interaction to improve technological partnership.

If we touch upon the area of cooperation, it has, in our opinion, an extremely broad character: agriculture and food, science and technology, shipbuilding and ship repair, the "blue" economy, marine industry and ocean resources, chemistry and inventions within its framework, energy, water resources, climate and natural resources, healthcare and medical technologies, biology and biotechnology, applied mathematics, data analytics and related technologies, materials science, physics and astronomy, polar research and nanotechnology (item 40).

Plans to bring academic cooperation between the two countries to a fundamentally new level are of great importance. This seems to be a very important intention, since academic cooperation is most closely intertwined with scientific and technological cooperation. In particular, the Parties agreed to continue consultations on the mutual recognition of diplomas of education and academic degrees (paragraph 43). Special attention was paid to such forms of academic and scientific and technological cooperation as the holding of Russian-Indian round tables, seminars, conferences and other events aimed at strengthening and expanding bilateral ties in the field of education and science (paragraph 44). In addition, an agreement was reached to continue efforts to develop ties between universities and other educational institutions. The parties welcomed the first Russian-Indian educational summit held in India on April 17, 2024 with the participation of about 60 Russian universities (Indo-Russian Education Summit 2024: Strengthening Educational Ties Between Russia and India (Indo-Russian Education Summit 2024: Strengthening Educational Ties Between Russia and India (04/17/2024) (https://infobrics.org/post/40982 )).

The conditions for expanding Russian-Indian cooperation are created during the implementation of initiatives put forward at the level of organizational structures. The incentives for expanding cooperation come from the negotiation process within the framework of the Intergovernmental Russian-Indian Commission on Trade, Economic, Scientific, Technical and Cultural Cooperation, as well as within the framework of the Working Group on Science and Technology. The 23rd meeting of the IPC was held in 2018, i.e. before the COVID-19 pandemic and the massive introduction of anti-Russian sanctions, which caused turmoil in the global economy and disrupted the usual mechanisms of international cooperation. The IPC met for its 24th meeting in April 2023 (New Delhi, April 21, 2023). The parties agreed to intensify activities aimed at strengthening and expanding bilateral ties in the field of education and science: conferences, round tables, seminars and webinars (Education, Science and grants: The Ministry of Education and Science of Russia intends to expand cooperation with India (04/20/2023) (https://minobrnauki.gov.ru/press-center/news/mezhdunarodnoe-sotrudnichestvo/66883 /)).

During the meeting, the Russian representative raised the issue of the need to update the international legal framework for bilateral cooperation between Russia and India in the field of higher education, expand direct partnerships between educational and scientific organizations, as well as hold competitions for joint research projects in a wide range of areas. It was also pointed out the possibility of holding regular webinars and workshops with the participation of heads of institutions who work in the areas outlined in the Roadmap. In addition, Indian partners were asked to identify priority areas for training young scientists in the form of internships in Russian research centers (Education, Science and grants: The Ministry of Education and Science of Russia intends to expand cooperation with India(04/20/2023) (https://minobrnauki.gov.ru/press-center/news/mezhdunarodnoe-sotrudnichestvo/66883 /)).

The Russian side proposed to create a new Working Group on Higher Education within the framework of the IPC with the participation of the Ministry of Health of Russia and relevant Indian ministries. The Group is designed to ensure coordination of the entire range of issues related to the education of Indians in Russia. One of the functions of the Working Group will be the development of an intergovernmental agreement on mutual recognition of education, qualifications and academic degrees in general and medical specialties. The issue of opening branches of leading Russian universities in India may also be the subject of its consideration.

The eleventh meeting of the Russian-Indian Working Group on Science and Technology was held in December 2021. The event, which was held online due to the coronavirus pandemic, was attended by representatives of ministries of both countries, scientists and heads of leading universities in Russia and India, scientific foundations and organizations (Polytech made proposals for the development of a roadmap for bilateral cooperation between Russia and India (https://ofko.spb.ru/politeh-vystupil-s-predlozheniyami-po-razvitiyu-dorozhnoj-karty-dvuhstoronnego-sotrudnichestva-rossii-i-indii/)). During the session, representatives of ministries, academies of sciences and scientific foundations of the two countries presented information on future research support programs, identified priorities and conditions for joint work. The session was attended by specialists from institutes of the Russian Academy of Sciences and leading Indian research centers. Two leading Russian universities with the strongest and most productive partnerships with the Indian side – Peter the Great St. Petersburg Polytechnic University and Tomsk State University, were invited to present their best practices in implementing bilateral projects, as well as to make proposals for inclusion in the new roadmap.

During the meeting, an objective assessment of the current Russian-Indian cooperation in the field of STI was made. According to D.G. Arsenyev, Vice-rector of Peter the Great Polytechnic University for International Affairs, Corresponding Member of the Russian Academy of Sciences, "researchers in our countries clearly do not have enough resources to implement all scientific ideas in line with the stated development strategies of our countries. Our proposal is to increase the number of bilateral competitions, supervised by ministries and scientific foundations, to support scientific research between the Russian Federation and India, with the involvement of leading universities, participants in excellence programs" (Quoted by: Polytech made proposals for the development of a roadmap for bilateral cooperation between Russia and India (https://ofko.spb.ru/politeh-vystupil-s-predlozheniyami-po-razvitiyu-dorozhnoj-karty-dvuhstoronnego-sotrudnichestva-rossii-i-indii/)).

Within the framework of the 12th meeting of the Russian-Indian Working Group on Science and Technology, which was held online in January 2023, Russian and Indian scientists, representatives of universities and relevant ministries exchanged information on such promising areas of cooperation as biotechnology, artificial intelligence, quantum technologies, cyberphysical systems, oceanography, medical sciences, fundamental and applied physics (Russia and India strengthen cooperation in the field of science and technology (12.01.2023) (https://minobrnauki.gov.ru/press-center/news/mezhdunarodnoe-sotrudnichestvo/63021 /)). The participants of the working group discussed the implementation of the interdepartmental Roadmap for Russian-Indian cooperation in the field of science, technology and innovation, prepared by decision of the previous meeting. The Working Group noted the high level of institutional relations between the Russian Academy of Sciences and the Indian Council for Scientific and Industrial Research, as well as their subordinate scientific organizations. Partners interact through webinars, meetings, conferences and visits.

Cooperation between Russia and India in the field of STI and its importance for the economies of the two countries was discussed during a working meeting between representatives of the Ministry of Science and Higher Education of the Russian Federation and the Council for Scientific and Industrial Research of the Ministry of Science and Technology of the Government of the Republic of India (the Ministry of Education and Science of the Russian Federation invited Indian colleagues to intensify cooperation in the scientific field (05/26/2023) (https://minobrnauki.gov.ru/press-center/news/mezhdunarodnoe-sotrudnichestvo/68432 /)). Representatives of the D. I. Mendeleev Russian University of Chemical Technology, the National Research Technological University "MISIS", the Analytical Center for International Scientific, Technological and Educational Programs and the Association "Russian House of International Scientific and Technical Cooperation" also joined the meeting.

It is noteworthy that both countries not only express their willingness to expand cooperation, but also take active steps in this direction. Cooperation is being discussed in a wide range of areas – from space to finance, from artificial intelligence to agriculture. For example, in 2023, major investment projects in the pharmaceutical sector were announced, but have not yet been implemented, including the creation of Safecon Lifesciences and Anicare Bio Science (RDIF to invest in import substitution of medicines in Russia // OREANDA News (09/11/2023) (https://www.oreanda-news.com/en/gosudarstvo/rdif-to-invest-in-import-substitution-of-medicines/article1488051/)).

There is a sharp increase in the number of contacts in the field of Hi-Tech, business missions and other activities aimed at establishing ties and mutual acquaintance with the possibilities of cooperation. A new logical step has been taken in the development of bilateral cooperation in the field of information technology: in July 2023, Sberbank announced that it had received permission from the Central Bank of India to establish its IT unit in Bangalore (Russia's Sberbank to set up IT unit in Bengaluru, to hire 200 specialists (07/27/2023) (https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/tech/technology/russias-sberbank-to-set-up-it-unit-in-bengaluru-to-hire-200-it-specialists/articleshow/102171756.cms)). An important milestone in cooperation in the ICT sector will be cooperation in the field of quantum technologies, the prospects of which are being discussed by Rosatom and Indian enterprises (Russia and India are exploring prospects for cooperation in quantum technologies (07/09/2024) (https://tass.ru/ekonomika/21313589 )). In the context of successful tests of quantum computers (25-qubit atomic and 20-qubit ion quantum computers) Rosatom has confirmed plans to provide the Indian side with a 50-qubit quantum computer and a cloud access service (Rosatom plans to introduce a 50-qubit quantum computer in 2024 (05/27/2024) ( https://nauka.tass.ru/nauka/20917903 ?utm_source=tass.ru&utm_medium=referral&utm_campaign=tass.ru&utm_referrer=tass.ru)).

Recall that an important segment of the Russian-Indian ISTC is the cooperation of the academies of sciences. This cooperation continues to develop effectively in modern conditions. For example, the Institute for Nuclear Research of the Russian Academy of Sciences invited Indian researchers to work at the Baksan Neutrino Observatory in the Elbrus region, as well as at the Baikal-GVD deep-sea neutrino telescope, and the Institute of Applied Astronomy of the Russian Academy of Sciences invited Indian colleagues to design a joint station for conducting observations using space geodesy methods (the Russian Ministry of Education and Science proposed Indian colleagues to intensify cooperation in the scientific field (05/26/2023) (https://minobrnauki.gov.ru/press-center/news/mezhdunarodnoe-sotrudnichestvo/68432 /)). At the same time, there is an increase in cooperation between Indian scientists and the Joint Institute for Nuclear Research (JINR), which currently cooperates with 17 scientific and educational organizations in India. A form of cooperation is the conduct of joint research, including within the framework of the NICA megascience class project. To further develop cooperation, the Indian side was offered an upgrade to associate member status. An important step in this direction may be the creation of the India–JINR Coordination Committee, which will represent all interested departments (Education, Science and grants: The Ministry of Education and Science of Russia intends to expand cooperation with India(04/20/2023) (https://minobrnauki.gov.ru/press-center/news/mezhdunarodnoe-sotrudnichestvo/66883 /)).

In addition, on the part of Russian academic circles and representatives of the Ministry of Science and Higher Education, the importance of cooperation in the fields of agriculture, food technology, ecology, climate change and monitoring of carbon balance data is being updated (the Ministry of Education and Science of Russia proposed to Indian colleagues to intensify cooperation in the scientific field (05/26/2023) (https://minobrnauki.gov.ru/press-center/news/mezhdunarodnoe-sotrudnichestvo/68432 /)). In addition, representatives of the Ministry of Education and Science of the Russian Federation propose to hold thematic bilateral events and internships for graduate students and young scientists within the framework of academic mobility programs. This will allow scientists to get to know each other better and further find common ground for joint research.

And finally, sufficient funding has been and remains an important condition for bilateral scientific and technological, as well as academic cooperation. In 2023, following a joint competition between the Ministry of Education and Science of the Russian Federation and the Department of Science and Technology of the Ministry of Science and Technology of the Republic of India, five projects were supported with a deadline of 2023-2025. Applications for the fourth joint RNF–DST competition with financing up to 7 million rubles continued to be accepted until June 15, 2023. The implementation of three-year projects is planned for 2024-2026. According to information sources, 23 projects were supported, while more than 300 applications were submitted for the competition. The amount of one grant from the RNF ranged from 4 to 7 million rubles annually (The results of the joint competition of the RNF and the DST – Department of Science and Technology of the Ministry of Science and Technology of the Republic of India (02/15/2024) were summed up (https://xn--m1agf.xn--p1ai/events/podvedeny-itogi-sovmestnogo-konkursa-rnf-i-dst-departamenta-nauki-i-tekhnologiy-ministerstva-nauki-i/)). A new competition for grants for the implementation of projects in 2025-2027 was announced on October 7, 2024.

In the modern ISTC, the importance of cooperation in the field of innovation is increasing. This reflects the strengthening of the course towards commercialization of R&D results. Therefore, it is quite appropriate to note the joint support of the Skolkovo Foundation and key Indian institutes for the development of innovative companies from the two countries (Skolkovo and Indian Development Institutes will support innovators from the two countries (07.09.2024) (https://nauka.tass.ru/nauka/21800307 ?utm_source=google.ru&utm_medium=organic&utm_campaign=google.ru&utm_referrer=google.ru)). The partners plan to strengthen business contacts between enterprises and leading Russian innovative small and medium-sized enterprises, as well as expand partners' access to technology. The framework of cooperation is the provisions of the memorandums of cooperation in the field of research, technology and innovation concluded by the Foundation and the Pune Science and Technology Park of the Ministry of Science and Technology of the Government of India and the Technology Business Incubator Foundation (AIC-SMUTBI). The memoranda were signed at the Startup Village 2024 international conference (Moscow, September 5-7, 2024). For reference, we note that the BRICS startup forum was held within the framework of the conference, organized with the support of the Ministry of Economic Development of Russia.

In fact, the activities of the Fund, which is one of the key development institutions, in the Indian direction are very significant, because it opens up wide prospects for Russian technology companies to enter Indian markets and create joint high-tech industries, conduct joint research, develop new technologies, implement infrastructure projects, localize high-tech companies, for example, in the field of telecommunications, satellite communications, digitalization of public administration and the urban environment. In addition, there is an opportunity to expand mutual access to Indian technologies and products of Russian innovative companies.

In short, it should also be noted that recently a certain revival has been taking place within the framework of military-technical cooperation between India and Russia (the military-technical cooperation of India and Russia is refocusing on the development of advanced defense technologies (07/09/2024) (https://www.interfax.ru/business/970031 )), the stimulation of which was set by the Joint Statement of 2024. As follows from the document, the partnership is currently being reoriented towards joint research and development, joint development and production of advanced defense technologies and systems.

The intensity and scale of bilateral Russian-Indian relations, as well as their prospects, are significantly influenced by the geopolitical factor. In modern conditions, it seems to us that its connections with the geo-economic factor are becoming more complicated: the first begins to have a significant impact on the second. More recently, it was noted in the Russian scientific literature that "given the dominance of geo-economics over geopolitics in the modern world, the absence of Russia among India's leading trading partners largely determines the limitations of greater political involvement of countries" ^{[34, p. 198]}. At the same time, it can be observed that the Russian-Indian MNT is developing in the context of the geopolitics of anti-Russian sanctions, which imposes noticeable features on it. The geopolitical factor creates conditions for the intensification of cooperation. As a result, thanks to the prompt response of the official authorities, academic communities and business communities of the two countries, new formats of interaction are being formed that allow using the current situation in a mutually beneficial way, but not without ignoring the complexity of the current moment. As an example, we will cite the withdrawal from the Russian market of such a private Indian high-tech IT company as Infosys, which develops custom software. This shows that Indian companies do not forget to exercise caution due to possible secondary sanctions, which are a kind of echo of Western sanctions that have brought complications to the implementation of partnership relations between Russia and India ^{[35, pp. 15-20]}. However, then, as it turned out, the company changed its mind about leaving Russia (The Guardian. Infosys still operating from Russia eight months after saying it was pulling out (04.11.2022) (https://www.theguardian.com/world/2022/nov/04/infosys-still-operating-russia-rishi-sunak-akshata-murty)).

It goes without saying that the implementation of a whole series of initiatives requires the identification and elimination of remaining barriers and restrictions that arise in the way of the development of bilateral ISTC, which operate in a single context with problems in the trade and economic plane ^[36]. Among the tasks of expanding cooperation between the two countries and increasing its effectiveness is finding common ground between the strategic priorities of the two countries in the field of STI development. We are talking about a set of directions of scientific and technological development. Currently, the greatest opportunities for cooperation are typical for such areas as ICT, pharmaceuticals and biotechnology.

A feature of the modern ISTC is its close intersection with trade, economic and industrial cooperation. Therefore, the processes in trade, economic and industrial cooperation have a significant impact on the ISTC, determining the prospects of the latter.

Recently, there has been a record increase in the volume of trade between the two countries. From April 2022 to February 2023, trade turnover reached a record $45 billion (Strokan S. Russia and India are groping for growth points (04/19/2023) (https://www.kommersant.ru/doc/5940564 )). This was due to an increase in the volume of Russian oil sales. According to official data, in 2022, Russian oil exports to India increased 22 times, and Russian fertilizer exports (April 2022 – February 2023) reached a three-year high (Novak: oil supplies from Russia to India increased 22 times in 2022 (03/28/2023) (https://www.kommersant.ru/doc/5900886 )). The unique growth of trade was confirmed at the Russia-India business dialogue, which took place within the framework of the Eastern Economic Forum (September 3-6, 2024) (Babich D. Russia – India: the unique growth of trade between the two countries was discussed at the WEF (09/12/2024) (https://www.kp.ru/daily/27633/4984138 /)). As a result, Russia has to some extent mitigated the problems arising from sanctions, and India has seen partnership with Russia as one of the drivers of its economic growth. However, there is still a trade imbalance, complemented by obstacles to market access for goods from both countries and a lack of investment guarantees.

The basis for the growth of trade and economic ties is seen in the expansion and deepening of industrial cooperation, which is not "point-based", but systemic in nature. As noted, "the development of joint projects can not only help countries overcome a number of organizational, infrastructural, and information constraints, but also accelerate the development of foreign trade relations between countries, bring them to a potentially possible level" ^{[37, p. 18]}. In this context, it is quite rational to involve representatives of the Russian manufacturing sector in the Make in India program (https://www.makeinindia.com /)), aimed at positioning India as a major manufacturer and powerful service provider. It is quite clear that the serious development of industrial cooperation is a rather difficult task. Its solution is included, for example, in the plans of the Ministry of Industry and Trade of the Russian Federation, which is thinking about getting out of the narrow range of hydrocarbon supplies and moving to the development of gas chemical and oil refining industries in India (Main buyer: how cooperation between Russia and India in oil and gas is developing (09/05/2024) (https://www.rbc.ru/industries/news/6659d7269a7947a78ccc070a )). However, as follows from information sources, a number of Indian companies are considering the possibility of localizing production in the Far East and in the Murmansk region (Alexey Kupriyanov on what hinders and helps the development of relations between Russia and India (12/12/2022) (https://www.kommersant.ru/doc/5719785 ?from=doc_vrez)).

The thesis about the interconnectedness of successes in the ISTC, on the one hand, and successes in trade, economic and industrial cooperation, on the other, can be justified by increasing attention to the commercialization of R&D results. In fact, the provisions on cooperation between Russia and India in this area are contained in legal acts and political and legal documents regulating bilateral cooperation. In this regard, the strengthening of mutual attention to the intensification of interaction largely depends on the prospects for commercialization of R&D results obtained on a cooperative basis. This kind of commercialization, in turn, involves in-depth production cooperation. Therefore, the lack of intensive industrial cooperation, in addition to financial and logistical problems in the ISTC of the two countries, has a deterrent effect on cooperation between Russia and India in the field of STI. In turn, the intensity of industrial cooperation is significantly influenced by investment potential and domestic demand.

In the latter case, the restrictions come from the relatively small Russian domestic market and the limited investment opportunities of the two countries. Therefore, deepening the ISTC makes sense when there are prospects for large-scale implementation of R&D results. Recently, attitudes towards strategic autonomy/sovereignty in the field of STI have been added to the restrictive factors. For example, India considers joint projects from the point of view of the interests of unhindered technology transfer with an eye to their further nationalization while simultaneously accessing the partner's markets and financial resources. India has always been interested, for example, in obtaining Russian technologies in the defense/nuclear field, which is quite problematic.

Any promising cooperation in the field of STI involves a high level of information support. In the case of the Russian-Indian ISTC, according to I. Danilin, "information asymmetries remain a significant problem: knowledge about the market, technologies, and features of each other is sorely lacking. The number of experts and specialists from both sides is negligible" (Danilin I. Russian-Indian cooperation in the field of high technologies: through thorns (02/20/2024) (https://russiancouncil.ru/analytics-and-comments/analytics/rossiysko-indiyskoe-sotrudnichestvo-v-sfere-vysokikh-tekhnologiy-cherez-ternii/)). We can only partially agree with this statement. Indeed, information on the high-tech product markets operating in the two countries is incomplete. But, it should be noted that the scope of applied R&D, which are focused on these markets, does not exhaust the entire volume of MNT. In the field of basic research, the level of awareness is much higher. This is evidenced by the performance of bid companies in the framework of RFBR and RNF competitions. But given the scale of the Indian STI sector, there is certainly an urgent need to expand the volume of information about projects and programs implemented by Russian and, accordingly, Indian researchers, as well as information about their results. This is a necessary condition for increasing the number of collaborations. In this case, it is much easier to achieve broad awareness than, for example, in the case of the Russian-Chinese ISTC, since the Chinese sector of the ISTC is more closed.

An increase in personal contacts within the framework of academic exchanges can contribute to the expansion of the information base. In line with this view, A. Zakharov's conclusion is that the downside of the institutionalization of the Russian ISTC is "excessive regulation, leading to excessive bureaucratic barriers to interaction between scientists and specialists. Ideally, expert meetings should be held on a much more regular basis than meetings of the joint Indian-Russian working group on science and technology" (Zakharov A. Prospects for India-Russia Scientific and Technological Cooperation (12/30/2024) (https://diplomatist.com/2019/12/30/prospects-for-india-russia-scientific-and-technological-cooperation/)). Therefore, it is quite advisable to develop a new program of inter-academic exchanges, especially since contacts between the academic sectors of the two countries have recently intensified. It seems that the program can enhance cooperation within the framework of the Russian-Indian Network of Universities, as well as lead to increased interaction within the framework of the Indian program "Global Initiative for Academic Networks" (GIAN).

It is understandable that organizational efforts should be supported by the search for new sources of funding for possible initiatives. Since the interacademic exchange program was completed, there has been little interaction between Russian and Indian institutes and research centers. The activities of the Russian-Indian Network of Universities and the opportunities provided by the Indian Global Initiative for Academic Networks (GIAN) program do not lead to a significant increase in the interaction of researchers. Bringing together scientists and creating conditions for their productive work is a necessary minimum for a breakthrough in scientific and technical cooperation. Consequently, there is a growing demand for programs that promote academic exchanges, which will subsequently require large investments.

In continuation of the above considerations, it seems very promising to develop platforms/forums for meetings between entrepreneurs, industry representatives, innovators and scientists in order to exchange ideas and best practices. There are already examples of such meetings. In December 2018, an Indo-Russian startup Summit was held under the auspices of the Confederation of Indian Industry and the Skolkovo Foundation, where areas of cooperation in the field of high-tech innovations were discussed (1st India-Russia Startup Summit (11.12.2018) (https://indianembassy-moscow.gov.in/press-releases-1st-india-russia-11-12-18.php )). Support for such events was continued in the future. However, it is necessary to expand the range of subjects of innovation activity that would be involved in the construction of a "bridge" between the innovation systems of the two countries, which implies the formation of partnerships between high-tech clusters of the two countries, as well as between other objects of industrial and innovative infrastructure.

5. Systematization of measures aimed at expanding Russian-Indian cooperation in the field of STI

Since Russia primarily needs an ISTC with India, the Russian expert community formulates a list of eight recommendations ^{[38, pp. 42-43]}, the implementation of which could bring cooperation to a qualitatively new level. The content of these recommendations deserves special consideration in order to be critically evaluated, and in some cases developed and supplemented.

In particular, recommendation No. 1 suggests holding regular strategic negotiations to "overcome any conflicts and solve geopolitical problems that hinder cooperation in the field of STI by openly discussing strategic priorities" ^{[38, p. 42]}. From our point of view, it is noteworthy that there is no indication of the format and subjects of such negotiations. It is also doubtful that such negotiations are necessary at all, since in the joint statements of the leaders of the two countries, the development of the bilateral ISTC has already received principled approval.

As the content of recommendations No. 2, a proposal was put forward to create financial instruments "to encourage joint research and development in high-tech areas. Financial incentives can promote collaborative innovation while reducing financial barriers." However, the authors of the recommendations do not indicate what they should be. At the same time, it should be agreed that the number of grants for joint projects needs to be significantly increased. But here there is a problem related to the fact that the resources of the RNF are not unlimited. Therefore, new financial instruments should be developed. In principle, it seems to us that it is reasonable to create a Russian-Indian scientific Foundation.

Recommendation No. 3 contains proposals aimed at improving the legal support of the ISTC. In particular, it is proposed to promote "the harmonization of the regulatory framework related to technology transfer, data confidentiality and intellectual property protection, in order to create transparent and detailed technology transfer agreements defining the parameters of knowledge exchange, intellectual property protection and mutual benefit." However, in practice, it is quite difficult to achieve harmonization, especially within the framework of Russian-Indian bilateral relations. This can be justified by the fact that Russia is not one of India's main scientific partners, whereas our country, of course, strives for India to become one of its main partners. But one of the main obstacles to harmonization is differences in legal systems. The following construction is also criticized – "harmonization ... in order to create transparent and detailed agreements." Note that the opposite is true: it is agreements that are concluded in order to achieve harmonization. The phrase that "such agreements can serve as a legal basis for the protection of information that is intellectual property ..." also causes criticism. The question arises as to whether information is an object of intellectual property rights? From our point of view, it has become a fairly common practice within the framework of the ISTC to include applications in cooperation agreements on the distribution of intellectual property rights resulting from joint developments. In this case, the guidelines for the content of these applications continue to be the provisions of the Protocol between the Government of the Russian Federation and the Government of India on the Protection and Use of Intellectual Property Rights, although they also need to be modernized.

Recommendation No. 4 on the introduction of reliable procedures for the protection of information and data in common use should be fully recognized as timely. This implies the creation of secure communication lines, the development and implementation of encryption standards, as well as the introduction of appropriate protocols in order to ensure the confidentiality and integrity of information related to technology. Indeed, as shown in the literature, digital transformations have covered not only scientific research and scientific and technical activities, but also ISTC ^[39]. In fact, the presence of the highest competencies of the two countries in the field of ICT can, in our opinion, serve as the basis for digital transformations of bilateral cooperation, which will make it not only modern, but also extremely effective.

Recommendation No. 5 on the further implementation of the program-project approach to cooperation in the aerospace, pharmaceutical and other industries is not new. But the idea itself, albeit set out in an extremely ornate form, of considering project cooperation as the basis for the formats of systemic partnerships is beyond doubt.

The encouragement of academic institutions, research groups and commercial firms to form public-private partnerships (PPPs) is provided for in Recommendation No. 6. Their purpose is seen in pooling resources, facilitating the exchange of experience and accelerating technological progress. Apparently, in this case we are talking about the formation of a PPP at the national level in the field of STI. We agree that this is a completely rational proposal, as well as the proposal to involve the largest Russian and Indian corporations in supporting bilateral R&D projects in the form of grants, concluding regular R&D contracts, implementing crowdsourcing initiatives of Rosatom, Sberbank, Reliance, etc. In addition, measures aimed at eliminating information gaps are proposed, such as information support; exchange of best practices on cooperation with various industry associations and/or companies that have business experience in partner countries; exchange of best practices on cooperation with analytical centers/research institutes whose attention is focused on Russian-Indian relations specializing; information exchange between regional and central authorities, whose competence includes trade and investment.

According to recommendation No. 7, it is necessary to organize regular cross–border "missions" (delegations - approx. the authors of the article) to Russia and India on STI issues, which will include representatives of research and business circles. Indeed, this will serve as a good basis for expanding personal contacts. However, we think that establishing personal contacts should be subordinated to the goal of developing and further implementing joint R&D projects.

Recommendation No. 8 provides for the need to intensify the promotion of academic cooperation in the form of the development of bilateral scientific and educational programs involving different categories of students (university undergraduates, college students, secondary school students). It should be recognized that the proposal to involve representatives of business structures and possible employers in the formation and implementation of such programs is relevant.

And finally, we should not forget about the systematic development of the Russian-Indian ISTC at the BRICS+ level. But there is one caveat here. We believe that the further development of bilateral relations in this area should not be replaced by a shift of attention to the multilateral format of interaction between the two countries, because in this case, the existing problems of bilateral relations will remain unresolved.

Conclusion

As a result of the conducted research of Russian-Indian scientific and technological relations at the present stage, it can be concluded that the positive dynamics of joint cooperation between the two countries in the field of STI. It seems that there are broad prospects associated with strengthening STI cooperation between the two countries, which would make it possible to contribute to ensuring their leadership in leading industries.

The basis of this conclusion is the existence of a developed international legal mechanism for regulating the ISTC of the two countries. It includes the provisions of international agreements concluded between Russia and India, the fulfillment of obligations under which are stimulated by political and legal guidelines that allow us to adjust bilateral cooperation and deepen it. They are reflected in documents of a political and legal nature (declarations, statements, memoranda). The vertical level of legal regulation (intergovernmental agreements) is supplemented by the horizontal level (agreements between Russian and Indian institutions of the scientific and educational sphere). The regulatory mechanism also includes a programmatic regulatory method that creates conditions for the implementation of relevant international legal obligations. The prerequisite for success in cooperation is the availability of the necessary organizational mechanism, represented by intergovernmental structures.

At the same time, currently this cooperation is not so significant in its scope, and the provisions of political and legal documents sometimes have the character of declarative intentions, which are not yet embodied in a wide range of specific scientific projects. The large-scale development and subsequent direct implementation of major scientific and technological projects in Russia and India is hampered by a number of political, legal and socio-economic problems that require immediate solutions. This is due to the fact that ISTC is a complex field, each component of which – financing, academic and scientific exchanges, seminars and symposiums, joint research, implementation of inventions, etc. – cannot be ignored.

The problems of building a new format of Russian-Indian scientific diplomacy currently need special consideration. The latter should take into account the attraction of the Indian academic and innovation sector to the United States, which is most dynamically occurring at the level of the large Indian scientific diaspora. An equally significant factor in such diplomacy is the choice of methods to intensify the Russian-Indian ISTC in the context of increasing cooperation between Russia and China in the field of STI, which may be painfully perceived by the Indian side.

The scientific partnership between Russia and India is going through a period that requires the realization of the potential accumulated by a long history of cooperation through the development of scientific cooperation for the joint generation of innovative knowledge and technologies at the level of specific large-scale projects. In addition, it is important to encourage research cooperation not only in terms of applied research, but also in terms of scientific projects of a fundamental nature.