Metaphor of Shame in Chinese and Russian

Khuan Ifan' ORCID: 0000-0002-2346-9237 PhD in Philology Postgraduate student, Department of Theory and Practice of Foreign Languages, Peoples' Friendship University of Russia 119526, Russia, Moscow, 26 Bakinsky Komissarov str., 10, sq. 32 huangyifan_2021@163.com

In modern cognitive linguistics, metaphorical thinking plays an equally important role than rational thinking: "A person not only expresses his thoughts using metaphors, but also thinks in metaphors, creates with the help of metaphors the world in which he lives"^[7]. In the case of a new, complex object that is not yet fully understood, a person uses elements from another, more familiar and understandable area to understand its meaning - a metaphorical projection from one conceptual category (source sphere) to another (target sphere). In the minds of native speakers, the connection between closer conceptual categories exists in the form of a metaphorical model, which is a diagram of how a person thinks and acts. "Our everyday conceptual system, within which we think and act, is essentially metaphorical" ^[6].

A metaphor is a trope based on a comparison of the similarities of objects, phenomena, behavior and signs. It figuratively represents the similarity of one object with certain features of another through the naming of the latter^[5]. In modern science, there is a noticeable increase in interest in the theory of metaphorical modeling. This interest is largely related to the monograph "Metaphors that we live by", the authors of which are J. Lakoff and M. Johnson. Their work focuses on the fact that metaphor is not limited only to the linguistic domain, but also covers the spheres of action and thinking.

Emotions as a phenomenon of the psyche have an extremely complex conceptual structure. "The peculiarity of emotional phenomena is that they are inaccessible to direct observation and can be studied mainly with the help of linguistic representations, among which metaphorical units occupy the main place"^[3]. Emotions are expressed in two ways: directly, that is, using nonverbal and paraverbal means, and indirectly, that is, by first conceptualizing emotion and then expressing it in language (Foolen 1997: 21)^[9]. In the case of the emotion of shame studied in this work, metaphors represent a cognitive model of this emotional state, a non-prototypical expression of the inner world of a ashamed person in Russian and Chinese.

In this work, such research methods as conceptual analysis, comparative analysis, metaphorical modeling and corpus research are used. The aim of the study is to study the emotional metaphors of shame in Russian and Chinese and to identify similarities and differences in the conceptualization of shame in the two linguistic cultures. The material for the study was the results of the analysis of 24 metaphorical units in the Chinese BCC and CCL buildings and 29 metaphorical units in the Russian NKRJ building. The methodological basis of the research is the theory of cognitive metaphors by J. Lakoff. According to this theory, it allowed us to identify five types of metaphors of shame: 1)physical, 2) natural 3) ontological 4) behavioral 5) sensory.

1. The physical type of emotional metaphors

Emotion is the experience of physiological changes in the organism following the perception of an object (stimulus)^[4]. External stimuli initiate physiological reactions in the human body, which, in turn, generate emotional reactions, thereby emphasizing that emotions represent awareness of changes in the body. In other words, emotions are closely related to physiological changes in organs and parts of the human body, such as sensory organs, limbs, skin, muscles, internal organs, bones, and more. Of all these changes, the direct connection between emotions and facial expression is especially noticeable.

When a person feels shame, his cheeks and his whole face turn red. This physiological symptom is reflected in the language, in the ways of linguistic description of shame: rya: She blushed deeply, as white blondes can blush.  Shame paralyzed her. (Vladimir Dudintsev); QW: “ ”?(/) (translation: Not a shame "to curse, not blushing"; the question is whether I'm telling the truth.) In Chinese, the shame can be expressed implicitly, not as a direct redness of the face, but rather as "change the complexion": ??translation: Sometimes we change your complexion, fear, anger, shame, and other passions change our complexion.?However, some people have narrowed blood vessels and reduced blood flow. Such people turn pale in stressful situations, including situations of shame, for example: If I had your pen, with what vividness would I depict how, struck by this unintentional blow, an unscrupulous judge turns pale. (D. I. Fonvizin. To G. The Writer). In Russian and Chinese "face" is considered as "a container of emotions" or "the mirror of emotions" to Express the feelings: OC: On his face was written the suffering and some shame (L. A. Danilkin); QW: ?() (translation: On my face seemed to have frozen a huge grimace of shame.).

People perceive the world around them through vision and can express their inner states through movements of the eye muscles, which causes the metaphor "eyes as windows of the soul." Eyes are a key tool of emotional communication due to their expressiveness. According to the theory of Ch. Darwin^[8], the eyes are one of the primary ways of expressing shame: they can be lowered or "run from side to side", the eyelids are closed, and sometimes the eyes are completely closed: rya: Zuleikha, blushing with unbearable shame, lowers her eyes and jumps out into the hall. (Guzel Yakhina); kya: ?()(Translation: Jin Feng's sister felt the heat on her face and hurriedly lowered her eyes.?In Russian, the eyes may water and/or glow with shame: ...shame shone in her watery eyes... (R. I. Fraerman). The eyes, in general, are seen as a receptacle of emotions, including shame, for example: OC: I read in his eyes a variety of feelings and regret, and shame, and fear (A. N. Apukhtin.); Kya:?()(Translation: A sigh escaped from the flute, and his eyes were full of shame.). Russian Russian shame can have serious consequences for the accuracy of physical perception of the world around us: the Russian metaphor "shame eats eyes" indicates that a feeling of shame can sometimes lead to such severe psychological discomfort that a person may begin to avoid eye contact with other people or even hide their gaze, for example: there was shame sober and Shame really ate at my eyes. (A. Y. Kolobrodov)

The heart as a mental and psychological entity is verbalized in two cognitive planes: 1) the heart, which is affected by emotions (the heart is a receptacle of emotions and experiences); 2) the heart, which is characterized by speech–thinking actions. Emotions are usually conceptualized as carriers in the human body or organs of the body, and the "heart" is often considered as an emotional container or emotional carrier for expressing emotions, for example:..and in the heart has the shame, heavy, like a weight... (Arkady Vainer, George wyner); QW:() (translation: Suddenly, in his heart surged a feeling of humiliation and shame...)

According to Chinese linguist Yuan Yulin (), the language expressions associated with "?" (full) are based on container metaphors^[10]. For example, the Han Chinese consider the "heart", "chest" and "belly" as a receptacle for the emotions, so in the Chinese language there is a metaphor container "chest full of shame", for example: ? ()Translation: She carries a child from one man in her womb, and goes to bed with another. His whole chest was full of shame.?

The head is an information processing center. The head is not only the center of the mind, but also the "analogue of the heart", that is, just like the heart, it acts as a receptacle of the soul, the center of feelings, for example: OC: Shame and a disgrace on my head! (V. P. Pravdukhin); QW: (/?) (translation: the Indelible shame and remorse weighed heavily on his mind, body, and heart.) When a person feels ashamed, he often lowers his head. The movements of his body and head express a desire to become less noticeable than he really is. There is a desire to "escape from the scene of the crime", hide and become invisible, for example: Rya: He leaned towards her, she lowered her head in embarrassment. (Sergey Chikara); QW: () ?translation: the Other was ashamed of me, and I had to raise my head again and lowered her...?

In Russian linguoculture, various parts of the body are used to describe the expression of shame, such as hands, lips, head, heart, chest, throat, forehead, etc., for example: LIPS: Shame reduced her lips to a kind of fake smile (A. S. Green); HANDS: Did you hold shame in your hands? (A. S. Green); LANGUAGE: Shame, shame... Even my tongue was numb from shame, the tip. (Vasily Shukshin); THROAT: Shame and anger squeezed my throat. (Julia Drunina); CHEST: ...simple shame did not grow in Ferdinand's chest (A. K. Dzhivelegov); BROW: Will not everyone see shame on TV's brow? (D. I. Fonvizin).

In metaphors related to the human body, the Russian language is richer and more diverse compared to Chinese. In the culture of the ancestors of the Russian and Chinese peoples, special importance was attached to the face, heart, chest, eyes, head and other parts of the body and internal organs associated with thoughts and feelings, while the brain as the central department of the nervous system did not always receive due attention. This incorrect view of the functioning of the human body has affected the formation of similar metaphors in Russian and Chinese. Many parts of the human body play an important role in expressing emotions and feelings. For example, when a person is ashamed, his face may turn red, which becomes a kind of physical manifestation of an inner state. The eyes are considered the "windows of the soul" - through them our feelings and inner experiences manifest themselves, they can be a vivid reflection of our emotional state. There are many metaphors in the Russian language that connect these parts of the body with emotions and feelings. The heart is one of the most common metaphors of internal organs in the Russian language. In Chinese culture, the heart has a special place: It is the first of the five most important organs of the human body, and the expression "?"" means that the heart controls human thoughts and mental activity. Therefore, the heart is often associated with a receptacle of emotions. It is interesting to note that the Russian language is richer than Chinese in this aspect: many expressions and phrases are designed to convey complex emotional states through the image of various parts of the body.

2. The natural type of emotional metaphors

A natural metaphor is a metaphor in which emotions are conceptualized as natural phenomena such as weather changes and natural disasters, and in the face of natural irresistible force, the subject is only passively at the mercy of emotions. The metaphor of natural irresistibility emphasizes the passivity of an emotional subject engaged in emotion.

SHAME IS FIRE

The concept of fire entered the cognitive arsenal of mankind, which allowed people to generalize and analyze abstract phenomena around them. Using this concept, people gradually began to attribute images and symbols associated with fire to abstract concepts. For example, when a person experiences shame, his body temperature rises, causing redness of the skin. The association with fire, its warmth and red color, has prompted people to use the metaphor of fire to express this emotional state, for example: rya: There was such a vulgarity in life, why there were no positions on earth where a person could warm his soul with the fire of shame. (Boris Pasternak); QW: () (translation: the Unspeakable shame burns my heart like a fire....). At the same time, the flame in combustion emits a lot of heat and flame can "burn" of people, for example: rya: You will not hit, and shame will burn you until the end of days (S. A. Samsonov); kya: ? ? () (translation: A feeling of shame burned her whole face ...).

SHAME IS A LIQUID

Conceptualizing emotions through the water element is a powerful and pervasive way to describe human feelings in many cultures. Water, with its depth, mobility, transparency and transformative ability, provides a rich metaphorical framework for describing emotional experiences. "Speaking generally about emotions and emotional states, one should, apparently, consider the dominant idea of them as a liquid body filling a person, his soul, heart, taking the 'form' of a vessel"^[1]. Emotions fill a person, taking the form of his inner world, just as a liquid takes the form of a vessel. Emotions are often described as waves rolling over a person or as streams that overwhelm him. Such metaphors reflect the power and unpredictability of feelings, their ability to suppress rational thinking and self-control. In Russian, there are often descriptions of "waves" of shame: Krylov was suffocated by waves of rising shame, as if it were heated and sprinkled with sugar. (O. A. Slavnikova); in Chinese, shame is conceptualized as a "tidal wave" "?"(tide): ?(?)) (translation:Hearing this, Jiao Puyin was so shy that her face turned red.)

The emotion of shame is not an epiphenomenon, i.e. a phenomenon that occurs in response to physical or mental processes, but does not affect these processes, and its representation in language is often based on specific images of nature, such as fire and liquid. There are many similarities in Russian and Chinese in the use of natural metaphors to describe shame, which is related to the common biological foundations of perception and understanding of emotions. At the same time, intra-linguistic differences and cultural peculiarities that affect the perception of the world lead to the fact that each language forms its own unique picture of the world. The language of expression of emotions is no exception, it also reflects the national characteristics of the perception of emotions. That is why there are significant differences between Russian and Chinese in the use of natural metaphors to express shame.

3. The ontological type of emotional metaphors

An ontological metaphor is a way of understanding and describing abstract emotional concepts through more specific, physically tangible or visually representable objects, phenomena or processes. Ontological metaphors are based on the process of conceptualization, which allows a person to attribute the properties and qualities of the physical world to abstract concepts, for example, emotions. By making the intangible tangible, abstraction acquires concrete features, formalizing emotional experience as an entity and forming a conceptual metaphor of emotion as an entity. There are many similar examples in Chinese and Russian.

SHAME IS FOOD

Emotions can be conceptualized as food, with the person experiencing emotions acting as a consumer of this food. This approach to emotions is a development of the container metaphor, where the human body is a vessel, and emotions are the contents that this vessel fills. In Russian culture, shame is sometimes used as an image associated with nutrition. For example, P. I. Melnikov-Pechersky wrote about the feeling of shame, comparing it with the awkwardness when buying food: for shame, he considered a worldly scoundrel to buy something edible. (P. I. Melnikov-Pechersky.) At the same time, in Chinese tradition, the shame is not associated with a specific type of food, but is expressed through actions such as "?" (to swallow) and "?" (swallow), for example: (translation: He swallowed the shame, worldly wisdom, every one) Such a comparison of food with the spiritual aspects of human life emphasizes the deep connection between the physical and the spiritual, where emotional well-being is considered an integral part of a full-fledged life and the inner world of a person, saturating and enriching his soul.

SHAME – CLOTHES

The metaphor of clothing illustrates the essence of shame. Clothing performs two functions: it hides body parts that are not intended for prying eyes, but at the same time makes a person noticeable and distinguishes him from the crowd. Similarly, shame has a dual nature: it makes us feel vulnerable and exposed in the eyes of others when secret or disapproving aspects of our behavior or character become known, for example: rya: Uncle Sandro believed that shame is the most elegant dress of all that adorns a woman. (Fazil Iskander); QW: (? ·) (translation: as soon As the tissue breaks down, the shame placed on public display). In these examples, shame is compared to an elegant dress that both paints and flaunts, and with a fabric that hides what should remain hidden, but when it breaks, everything secret becomes clear. Thus, shame in these metaphors is a force that exposes our true self to ourselves and others, reminding us of the importance of social norms and personal responsibility.

SHAME IS AN ANIMAL

Shame is a fundamental human emotion that distinguishes us from animals. However, when people act without shame, they are often compared to animals, which highlights the loss of human dignity and moral guidelines. In Russian and Chinese, there are metaphors where shameless human behavior is equated with the behavior of animals such as snakes, wolves, dogs, flies and rats. These comparisons are not accidental: each of these animals carries a culturally determined symbolism.

The snake, for example, is associated with cunning and deception, an image embedded in the biblical texts with the story of the seduction of Adam and Eve. In the Russian cultural context, a snake can symbolize internal conflict and shame, embodied in the metaphorical comparison "shame, like snakes, are entwined in one disgusting tangle" (F. E. Sarin-Nesvitsky). In Chinese culture, wolves are often referred to as symbols of greed and lust, dogs — betrayal and disloyalty, flies and rats — importunity and meanness: WOLF:(1994) (translation: In life, Gui Bingquan is a shameless, lustful wolf.) DOG:() (translation: Proof that you - hound, a disgrace to the country and its people.) FLY: “?”(1994) (translation: According to Han Yu, "flies and cringing dogs; they chased and they are back again", which is the shamelessness.) RAT:(1995) (translation: At the same time, you need to know shame, <... > to know the face of those who like rats.)

Thus, the metaphorical comparison of people deprived of shame with animals highlights the degradation of moral qualities, leading to a loss of humanity and public respect.

Exploring the ontological types of emotional metaphors, we see that there are different approaches to conceptualizing shame in Russian and Chinese linguistic cultures. In Chinese, shame is often associated with food: it can be "eaten", that is, to experience or assimilate the experience. There is also the concept of "" (Fabric to cover shame), which makes shame look like clothes, a kind of veil or mask that hides our weaknesses or shortcomings.

In Russian linguistic culture, shame can also be represented through the metaphor of food, but here the emphasis is on hiding emotions, on the possibility of "hiding" shame. This reflects the differences in the perception and expression of emotional states in the two cultures.

Special attention in Chinese linguoculture is paid to metaphors of shame related to animals. These differences in the conceptualization of shame highlight the unique cultural features and approaches to the representation of emotional experiences in Russian and Chinese linguistic cultures.

4. The behavioral type of emotional metaphors

Behavioral metaphors are metaphors that allow people to become aware of shameful feelings through exposure to things, including metaphors of war (the enemy) and metaphors of illness. This metaphorical concept exists in both Russian and Chinese.

SHAME IS THE ENEMY

In this metaphor, shame is compared to an enemy that is being fought, in which various tactics are used: from attack to retreat. This shows that shame is not just an internal feeling, but also an external confrontation that can have a strong impact on a person and even threaten his life.

Intense shame can be so powerful that it "kills" people emotionally or socially, just as the enemy kills people in war. People are trying to get rid of shame, and shame seeks to control them, creating a conflict similar to a military confrontation. The metaphors used in Russian and Chinese emphasize this dynamic by showing shame as an external attack that an individual must resist or defend against: rya: apparently, the shame before this often almost paralyzes me in my writing. (Andrey Bitov) Kya:(translation: They were attacked by a strong sense of shame.) Intense shame poses a serious threat to human life and health: Shame, bitterness and anger choked me in turn. (Vasily Belov). Shame can make a person helpless, for example: () (translation: If Zhang Zhu Yue fell through the ground because of his shamelessness, she would not live long.)

SHAME IS A DISEASE

Some conceptual metaphors help people understand emotions through physical sensations, namely through associations with physical illness or torture. It has been noted that uncomfortable physical sensations can be caused by emotional or internal harm caused by other people. It is important to note that this process represents a transition from a physical sensory space to a psychological one, which can be considered as an evolution from "physical strength" to "psychological strength" in the metaphorical understanding of emotions.

In Russian, shame can cause "mental pain", which is almost like physical pain, and in Chinese it is associated with "trembling", indicating the physical tension and discomfort associated with this emotion: <url>: I suddenly felt shame and such mental pain that I almost groaned. (VP Kataev) In Chinese, shame leads to "trembling" and "palpitations": () (translation: Fear of shame made him tremble.)

Thus, the emotion of shame, like other emotions, can be described through painful physical sensations, which is part of the metaphorical mechanism of linguistic description of emotions.

5. Sensory type of emotional metaphors

Emotions are internal psychological reactions that, although accompanied by physiological changes, differ from external sensations such as touch, temperature, taste, hearing, and vision. These external sensations lead to certain physiological reactions to stimuli from the outside, while emotions form an internal psychological response. Interestingly, specific sensory experiences, such as a feeling of warmth or cold, can be associated with internal emotional states, thereby creating metaphorical connections between the concrete and the abstract.

Emotional states such as shame, excitement, nervousness, or anger can cause noticeable physiological changes: palpitations, redness of the face, accelerated metabolism, and an increase in body temperature. These changes serve as the basis for metaphorical associations between emotions and sensations of temperature, for example, the metaphor of "shame – heat": OC: Hot whirlwind rose in her shame, and joy, shame, pride, surprise, and delight. (V. F. Panova) Kya:(1996) (translation:...My shame is painful and burning.)

Chinese and Russian also use color and flavor metaphors to describe the emotion of shame. In both languages, red is associated with shame, which is reflected in literary examples where a face blushing with shame or happiness is mentioned: rya: Crimson shame crept across the face. (Anton Sorsky) Kya: () (translation:...a red cloud of happiness crept down her cheeks.) In Russian, black is also used to express a deep sense of shame: I will take black shame out of my heart. (V. V. Vinogradov)

In addition, in both linguistic cultures, a taste metaphor is used to describe shame, especially the metaphor of shame as bitterness - "" (bitter heart). The bitter taste, being a physically unpleasant sensation, is metaphorically transferred to the psychological experience of shame. In the following example, bitterness is associated with shame, demonstrating how the sensation of taste can serve as a source sphere for describing emotional states: rya: and the sweetest berry could not destroy the bitterness and shame of what happened. (Yuri Rytkhau) kya: . (2003) (translation:...But we also swallowed the bitter fruit with the taste of shame.)

Conclusion

Emotions play a key role in a person's mental life, closely intertwined with the processes of cognition. The language we use to describe our emotions on a daily basis is an important tool for understanding their essence. The study of emotional expressions in different languages makes it possible to discover common features and cultural differences in the emotional experience of representatives of different linguistic cultures.

When we express emotions, it is not only a reflection of our personal, physiological experience (that is, what is happening in our body), but also the result of the influence of the culture in which we live. Cultural attitudes and values shape what emotions we feel, how we interpret them, and how we talk about them.

Thus, when it comes to conceptual metaphors in the context of emotions, they serve as a bridge connecting our personal experience (what we physically feel when we experience emotions) with cultural concepts (how we understand and express these emotions in accordance with the norms and values of our society). These metaphors simultaneously reflect universal human feelings common to all people and specific cultural characteristics specific only to certain communities.

In this study, an analysis of the metaphorical representation of shame in Russian and Chinese was carried out. The similarities and differences in the conceptual metaphors of shame and their underlying causes were considered, which made it possible to more fully understand the specifics of expressing this emotion in two linguistic cultures.

The results of the study show that in different cultures there are similarities in the ways of describing shame using metaphors, which may indicate the universal biological basis of this emotion. When people experience shame, in Chinese and Russian, shame is conceptualized as "vessel", "water", "fire", "disease", "enemy", "food", "clothes", "animals", etc. Shame is hot, reddish in color and bitter in taste. each language is unique, and each language has its own so—called picture of the world - a culturally specific model^[2]. The language of expression of emotions is no exception, it also reflects the national characteristics of the perception of emotions. This explains why there are significant differences in the ways Russian and Chinese express shame using metaphors.Although the perception of emotions is universal, the cognitive process also demonstrates the trends or uniqueness of the culture being represented. The Russian language is richer than Chinese in organs for expressing emotions. There are many more animal metaphors expressing shame in Chinese than in Russian.