Azerbaijani-Persian relations in 1918-1920: from territorial claims to diplomacy

Davydova Tatiana Senior lecturer, the Department of Foreign Regional Studies, Ural Federal University named after the first President of Russia B. N. Yeltsin 620083, Russia, Sverdlovsk region, Yekaterinburg, Turgenev str., 4, room 390 tania.davydova@gmail.com

Introduction

Modern Azerbaijani-Iranian relations can be described as favorable and have high potential for further development. Nevertheless, in view of the historical development of the two countries, Azerbaijani-Iranian relations contain a number of contradictions and unresolved issues, the most important of which are mutual territorial claims. Under certain circumstances, the aggravation of a possible territorial conflict between two neighboring States can lead to a change in borders in the region. So, in 2013, Iran began to revise the provisions of the Turkmanchay Peace Treaty of 1828, arguing that the terms of the treaty were valid only for 100 years, and Azerbaijan's independence after the collapse of the USSR was a violation of the norms of the treaty ^[4]. Azerbaijan, in turn, pointed out to Iran the obligation to return the northwestern regions where Azerbaijanis traditionally live ^[4].

Back in the 19th century, the Russian Empire had a strong influence on the transformation of the region's borders. Following the results of the Russo-Persian war in 1813, the Gulistan Peace Treaty was signed between the Russian Empire and Persia, which secured the established borders for the participants of the war – the northern khanates such as Baku, Karabakh, Ganja, Shirvan, Sheki, Derbent, Cuban, Talysh came under the rule of the Russian Empire. As a result of another Russo-Persian war, which ended in 1828 with the signing of the Turkmanchay Peace Treaty, two more khanates, Erivan and Nakhichevan, came under the control of the Russian Empire. Also, the terms of this agreement defined the modern border separating Azerbaijan and Armenia from Persia and fixed the division of Azerbaijan between the Russian Empire and Persia ^{[5, p. 8]}. Thus, the territory of Azerbaijan was divided into two parts – northern and southern, called Caucasian and Persian Azerbaijan, respectively.

Establishment of the Azerbaijan Democratic Republic and establishment of relations with Persia

In the 20th century, after the collapse of the Russian Empire in 1918, three independent states were formed in Transcaucasia, one of which was the Azerbaijan Democratic Republic (ADR), located on the territory of Caucasian Azerbaijan. According to the Declaration of Independence of the ADR, the territory of the newly formed state covered the Eastern and Southern Transcaucasia ^[3]. Having declared independence on May 28, 1918, the Azerbaijani government intended to establish friendly diplomatic relations with other participants in international communication as soon as possible. Special attention was paid to foreign policy relations with Persia, as a neighboring state, part of whose population consisted of Caucasian Turks.

Meanwhile, in the autumn of 1918, a conference on the settlement of the First World War was expected to be held in Constantinople, and representatives of a number of interested countries sent their delegations there to participate in the negotiations. The ADR Government has also sent its diplomatic mission to Constantinople to express national interests. In Constantinople, Azerbaijani diplomats, headed by the chairman of the diplomatic mission M. E. Rasulzade, notified the Persian Consulate in Constantinople about the formation of an independent ADR state and submitted the necessary documents.

However, this event did not find support from Persia, and the Persian consulate stated that "it does not recognize an independent state called Azerbaijan" ^{[1, p. 52]}, since Azerbaijan "forms an inseparable part of Persia" ^{[1, p. 52]}. Persia's fears were not unfounded, since the territory of Persian Azerbaijan was occupied by Ottoman troops. The Persian leadership saw in this the possibility of uniting Caucasian Azerbaijan with Persian Azerbaijan into a single state called Azerbaijan ^{[7, p. 359]}.

Thus, in order to eliminate misunderstandings regarding territorial claims, the ADR government preferred to use the expression "Caucasian Azerbaijan" in diplomatic documents ^{[7, p. 359]}.

In September 1918, the ADR Council of Ministers appointed an attorney for ADR affairs in Persia ^{[1, p. 54]}. However, diplomatic cooperation between the ADR and Persia actually began in the spring of 1919 ^{[1, p. 431]}, when an emergency diplomatic mission headed by Ismail Khan Ziathan was delegated to the Shah's government in Tehran by a resolution of the ADR Council of Ministers dated February 1 ^{[1, p. 150]}. The mission also included Major General Prince Amanullah Mirza ^{[1, p. 150]}. Gradually, the list of employees of the ADR diplomatic mission in Persia was expanded: in April 1920, the mission, including its head, numbered 15 people ^{[1, p. 498]}. The deputy head of the mission was Akper agha Sadikhov; the mission also included clerks, couriers and other employees ^{[1, p. 498]}.

In April 1919, during his visit to Tehran, Ismail Khan Ziathan had a number of meetings with Persian representatives ^{[7, p. 358]}. The result of this mission was the drafting of postal, telegraphic, trade and other agreements, the creation of a permanent diplomatic mission of the ADR in Tehran, the project of a consulate in Tabriz and other border and central points of Persia ^{[1, p. 431]}.

On July 16, 1919, the Azerbaijani government established a new diplomatic mission to Persia, with Adil Khan Ziathan as its head ^{[8, s. 176]}. Adil Khan Ziathan was forced to delay his departure to Persia due to the arrival in Baku of a special emergency Persian mission, the purpose of which was to create "a common ground for rapprochement between both states, temporarily recognizing the independence of Azerbaijan" ^{[1, p. 431]}.

During the establishment of diplomatic contacts, the Government of Persia made an attempt to get closer to the ADR by putting forward the initiative to form a confederation of the two countries. During his visit to Baku, the Minister of Foreign Affairs of Persia, as well as the head of the Persian diplomatic mission at the Paris Peace Conference, Mirza Ali Quli Khan Ansari, also known as Moshaver ol-Mamalek, outlined a number of reasons for the need for such a state education ^{[7, p. 358]}.

Firstly, the Minister noted that the ADR would not be recognized by the international community due to the signing of a friendship treaty with the Ottoman Empire.  Secondly, the Minister stressed that, due to Armenia's hostile attitude and territorial claims to the ADR, it is impossible to create a federation of South Caucasus states, the draft of which has already been developed by representatives of Transcaucasia. Thirdly, the presence of the Russian threat of invasion from the north made it desirable to create a Persian-Azerbaijani confederation ^{[7, p. 358]}.

The Azerbaijani government, in turn, rejected the initiative to create a Persian-Azerbaijani confederation, seeing in it another enslavement of the Azerbaijani people ^{[7, p. 358]}.

In this scenario, the Persian diplomatic mission intended to discuss the territorial issue at the peace conference in Paris, which began its work in January 1919. Thus, the head of the Persian diplomatic mission at the conference declared territorial claims to the ADR, since the collapse of the Russian Empire gave grounds to cancel the previously concluded Gulistan and Turkmanchay treaties and return the lost lands to Persia ^{[7, p. 359]}. However, this requirement was not satisfied, since Persia was not a member of the allied and united nations ^{[6, p. 49-50]}. Moreover, in August 1919, Persia was excluded from participation in the peace conference.

A new stage of Azerbaijani-Persian relations

Since September 1919, diplomatic relations between the ADR and Persia have been warming. By this time, personnel changes had taken place in the diplomatic corps of both countries: the head of the Persian delegation to the Paris Peace Conference was the Minister of Foreign Affairs of Persia Firuz-mirza Nusrat al-Dovla, the head of the Azerbaijani mission in Paris was appointed Alimardan bey Topchibashev, the former Minister of Foreign Affairs of the ADR. In Paris, representatives of the two countries held talks, following which Firuz Mirza Nusrat al-Dovla stated that the Persian government does not have any claims to Caucasian Azerbaijan ^{[8, s. 176]}.

The governments of the ADR and Persia also carried out work outside Paris – in October, projects on trade, postal and telegraphic, customs and other agreements were discussed. In order to work out the draft agreements in detail, the Azerbaijani government was ready to receive in Baku a commission of specialists on trade, postal and telegraphic, customs and other issues ^{[1, p. 316]}.

The result of joint efforts was the creation of a joint Persian-Azerbaijani commission in Paris at the end of October ^{[8, s. 175]}. On October 29, the first meeting of the commission was held, Ceyhun-bek Hajibeyli and Mir Yakub Mehdiyev were present from the ADR, Zekov Mulk and Mustan Saris Seltene were elected to the commission from Persia ^{[8, s. 175]}. On November 1, the parties managed to reach the following agreements: 1) Caucasian Azerbaijan is permanently separated from Russia within the borders fixed on the map presented for the Paris Peace Conference; 2) Azerbaijan was created through general elections and is a presidential parliamentary independent democratic republic with Baku as its capital; 3) Azerbaijan establishes political and economic relations with Persia in international affairs, and these relations are determined by mutual agreement 4) Azerbaijan should be recognized as an independent state, which should receive political, economic, cultural and military development ^{[8, S. 175]}.

After the work of the Persian-Azerbaijani commission, the interaction between the two countries has intensified even more. From December 5 to December 30, 1919, a conference was held in Baku, at which the main directions of economic and political relations between the ADR and Persia were determined ^{[1, p. 431]}. It was also established that the main treaties concluded between Persia and Russia remained in force, with the exception of those points that, in the current situation, did not correspond to the interests of the ADR and Persia.

Within the framework of the conference, special commissions worked on political and legal, customs, trade and transit, postal and telegraphic issues ^{[1, p. 431]}. The Political Commission focused on the issues of shahsevans and capitulations. At first, the Persian government reacted negatively to the activities of the Azerbaijani government, as it was afraid of its claims to Persian Azerbaijan, inhabited by Azerbaijani Turks. However, having failed to find the appropriate agitation, the Persian government concluded that the Shahsevan raids within Persia would not be repeated ^{[1, p. 431]}. As for the issue of capitulations, the Azerbaijani representatives noted the need to abolish capitulations as a remnant of former cultural times ^{[1, p. 431]}. The Persian delegates, in turn, stated that the capitulations in Persia had been canceled and the Napoleonic Code, amended according to Sharia, was in force everywhere ^{[1, p. 431]}.

The Commission on Customs, Trade and Transit Affairs discussed the issues of exempting transit goods going to Persia from fees and increasing duties on Baku oil imported to Persia ^{[1, pp. 431-432]}. The Persian mission was also interested in raising the exchange rate of Azerbaijani money in Persia, since their fall in price caused great damage to Persian merchants with trade ties with the ADR ^{[1, p. 432]}.

At the meeting of the postal and telegraphic commission, the issue of streamlining telegraphic communication and choosing the franc as the main postal and telegraphic currency was considered ^{[1, p. 432]}.

Despite the work of the commissions, the drafts of the relevant treaties proposed by the Persian mission and the Azerbaijani government were not considered at the joint meeting of the conference ^{[1, pp. 431-432]}.

In early January 1920, the Azerbaijani diplomatic mission left for Persia ^{[1, p. 435]}. Before leaving, the head of the Persian delegation, Seyid Ziaeddin Tabatabai, together with the Consul General and the Baku Consul, expressed his best wishes to the head of the Azerbaijani mission, Adil Khan Ziathan, and his deputy, Akper Agha Sadikhov ^{[1, p. 435]}.

Back in September 1919, Adil Khan Ziathan, before traveling to Persia, requested maps of Persia and the Caucasus from the Azerbaijani Ministry of Foreign Affairs, as well as the necessary statistical data on the population and economic life of the ADR ^{[1, p. 298]}. In addition to maps and statistical data, the Azerbaijani mission had with it a government mandate to negotiate with the Shah's Government of Persia on the declaration of independence of the ADR and the establishment of mutual good-neighborly relations. This mandate gave the Azerbaijani mission the right to conduct the necessary preliminary negotiations on the following issues: 1. Mutual diplomatic representation and, first of all, of Persia – in Baku and Ganja, of Azerbaijan – in Tehran, Rasht, Tabriz, Mashhad; 2. Elaboration of general provisions for the further conclusion of the convention: trade, postal and telegraphic, customs, water, railway and highway communications; 3. On the adoption of mutual measures for the effective protection of border lines ^{[1, p. 150]}.

On January 5, the Azerbaijani mission arrived in the Persian city of Enzeli ^{[1, p. 435]}, and then went to Tehran, where the head of the Azerbaijani mission and his deputy exchanged visits with the head of the Persian government, Vosug Doule, with other members of the government and with all foreign missions of Great Britain, the USA, France, the Ottoman Empire, Armenia, Russia ^{[1, p. 478]}.

The arrival of Azerbaijani diplomats in Tehran coincided "with the receipt of a telegram on the recognition of the de facto independence of the ADR by the Supreme Council of the Entente at the Paris Peace Conference" ^{[1, p. 478]}. The recognition of the ADR de facto made "the most favorable impression on all Persian political circles and caused a number of sympathetic articles in the press" ^{[1, p. 478]}. It was not only a significant event for the entire Muslim world, but also a major political event for Persia itself, as it established an entire Muslim buffer state between Persia and Russia ^{[1, p. 478]}.

Meanwhile, a few days later, on January 14, 1920, a solemn event was held at the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the ADR on the occasion of the holiday of recognition of the independence of the ADR ^{[1, p. 429]}. The event was attended by diplomatic representatives of a number of foreign countries. The head of the Persian mission, S. Z. Tabatabai, announced a toast in honor of the Transcaucasian republics and expressed confidence that "official recognition of these republics from Persia will follow in a few days" ^{[1, p. 429]}.

Cultural and humanitarian cooperation was also one of the important aspects of bilateral relations for the Azerbaijani mission. The Azerbaijani mission in Persia sought to widely disseminate information about its country: the book "Azerbaijan, its History, Literature and Politics" by Adil Khan Ziathan in the Turkic language was distributed free of charge to the local population ^{[1, p. 422]}.

The result of the Azerbaijani diplomatic mission in Persia was a number of elaborated projects of postal, telegraphic, trade and other agreements, the creation of a permanent diplomatic mission of the ADR in Tehran and the project of a consulate in Tabriz and other border and central points of Persia ^{[1, p. 431]}. Also important was the railway connection from the Caspian Sea to India, which was conducted by British companies. Thanks to the railways, the ADR could get access to the East, and Persia could get access to Europe ^{[1, p. 478]}.

In February 1920, the Azerbaijani government established its vice consulates in Enzeli ^{[1, p. 462]}. Persian Imperial Vice-Consul Mohsin Khan Muaedol Vezire also worked in Baku from Persia in February ^{[1, p. 464]}.

De jure recognition of the Azerbaijan Democratic Republic by Persia

March 20, 1920 became one of the most important dates in the history of the ADR – the Azerbaijani and Persian governments signed an agreement on peace and friendship, within the framework of which the Persian government de jure recognized the ADR ^[2].

In addition to recognizing the ADR, the following most important agreements were reached in the agreement: Persia recognizes the independence of the ADR and diplomatic relations are established between the countries; countries can appoint consuls general, consuls, vice-consuls and consular agents; citizens of both countries have the opportunity to trade on the territory of another country; exchange of postal services is established for citizens of both countries, A number of punishments were imposed and the Convention on the Extradition of Criminals was signed ^{[8, pp. 176-177]}.

In addition, in order to strengthen friendship and stability of economic relations between the two states, it was indicated the need to conclude trade, customs, consular, postal, telegraphic and other agreements. For the development of international relations, it was supposed to open diplomatic missions – the embassies of the ADR and Persia in Tehran and Baku ^{[7, p. 361]}.

According to the agreement, diplomatic missions were opened in both Baku and Tehran. A. H. Ziathan was appointed Ambassador of the ADR to Persia. At the opening of the Azerbaijan-Persian conference, S. Z. Tabatabai and M. Yu. Jafarov made a speech and noted the importance of strengthening economic and political relations between the two countries. The ongoing negotiations between the ADR and Persia led to the signing of agreements on telegraphic, commercial, customs, judicial, transit and consular conventions ^{[7, p. 361]}.

The Azerbaijan-Persian agreements were ratified by the ADR Parliament on April 15, 1920.  As a result, as stated at a meeting of the Parliament, the Minister of Foreign Affairs of the ADR F. Khoysky, six agreements were signed with Persia, which marked the beginning of friendly cooperation between the two countries ^{[8, s. 177]}. Persia became the first state to de jure recognize the ADR.

With this, the development of foreign policy relations between the ADR and Persia can be considered complete, since on April 28, 1920, the ADR state fell – Soviet Russian troops entered its territory, and, taking Baku, proclaimed the Azerbaijani Soviet Socialist Republic, which became part of the USSR until 1991.

Conclusion

Despite the fall of the ADR state, at a certain period, relations between the USSR and Iran were strained precisely because of Azerbaijan. During the Second World War, the USSR's plans to strengthen its southern borders included the creation of a single state from Caucasian and Iranian Azerbaijan. In this regard, in 1941, the territory of Iranian Azerbaijan was occupied by Soviet troops, which allowed Soviet propagandists to actively conduct pro-Azerbaijani agitation, which resulted in the creation of the Democratic Party of Azerbaijan (DPA) in 1945. Thanks to the activities of the DPA, which advocated the creation of a unified Azerbaijan, the Democratic Republic of Azerbaijan (DRA) was proclaimed in part of the territory of Iranian Azerbaijan and its government was formed. However, a year after the creation of the DRA, the USSR, under pressure from the Allies and having signed the Soviet-Iranian agreement in 1946, was obliged to withdraw its troops from Iran, which, in turn, led to the liquidation of the DRA state.

Thus, under certain circumstances, the possibility of forming a new state that will unite parts of the territories of the two countries remains open. In view of the unstable geopolitical situation and attempts to revise international treaties, one of the parties may re-assert territorial claims, thereby provoking a change in the political map of the world.