Piano cycles of Italian composers of the late 19th – first half of the 20th century: on the problem of programming.

Maidanevich Tamara Leonidovna Associate Professor, Department of Music Education, Moscow State Institute of Culture 6 Shturvalnaya str., Moscow, 125364, Russia Tlm_2@rambler.ru Other publications by this author

       Piano cycles make up a significant part of the creative heritage of Italian composers of the late XIX – first half of the XX century. While preserving the most important features of the genre that developed in the musical culture of the XIX century, they accumulated some features peculiar to Italian musical art. First of all, this is reflected in the implementation of the program. The piano cycles of Italian masters created during this period were not considered in Russian musicology from the point of view of identifying and characterizing various types of programming. This article partially fills this gap. The object of research in it is the piano cycles of Italian composers, the subject is the types of programming implemented in them. The purpose of the study is to identify the most characteristic ways of implementing program ideas. The article uses the method of musical theoretical analysis, combining stylistic, structural, compositional and thematic approaches.

        Let us turn to the concept and types of programming in order to characterize the features of its implementation in the works of Italian composers under consideration, as well as to identify priority areas in its implementation.

        The meaning of programming F. Liszt formulated it as follows: "The program is a preface to purely instrumental music presented in a publicly available language, with the help of which the composer seeks to protect his listeners from arbitrary poetic interpretation and to indicate in advance the poetic idea of the whole, to bring to its main points" ^{[1, p. 285]}. B. V. Asafyev noted in program music "the subject, sometimes conceptual concretization", which is embodied in "visible musical and plastic illustrations" ^{[2, p. 110]}. L. A. Mazel and V. A. Zuckerman emphasized that in program music the composer "displays well-defined specific life phenomena, events, plots and indicates this in the title of the work or in a special explanation" ^{[3, p. 16]}.

       Systematizing the types of programming in music, scientists in their writings proposed various classification criteria.

      Thus, M. G. Aranovsky, considering the idea of translating the plots of literary sources, identifies four types: the plot of a literary work in a musical opus is presented in detail; listing only the main events and images of a literary source in a musical opus; presentation of the main idea of a literary work in a musical opus; presentation by the composer of only the title of a literary work ^[4].

       Yu. N. Khokhlov in his work "On musical programming" ^[5] substantiates three types of programming in music: sequentially-plot, generically-plot and pictorial.

        Developing ideas about the features of the implementation of programming, L. P. Kazantseva, in addition to the plot and generalized plot types, distinguishes picture-descriptive and generalized programming. Pictorial and descriptive programming finds realization in musical portraits, landscapes, and plays embodying certain mental states – dreams, daydreams, meditations, and premonitions. Generalized programming is characterized by the most general indication of an "extra-musical component on the theme of a musical work. In this case, the musical work may embody abstract concepts such as "heroic struggle", "love", "rush to freedom", "fate", etc." ^[6]. A.V. Denisov introduces the term "hidden programmatic allusion" ^[7].

       Recently, the problem of programmability in instrumental music has been considered on various musical materials in articles and dissertation studies by musicologists ^{[8, 9, 10]}.

      Based on the ideas presented in the work of L. P. Kazantseva, we note that various types of programming are implemented in the piano cycles of Italian composers of the historical period under consideration, while the most important feature of the works is their integrity, realized in tonal connections of the arch type, contrasting comparison of neighboring pieces, figurative and emotional unity, stylistics. The national component also becomes important, manifested in the appeal to the elements of folk dances and songs, subjects from Italian culture or everyday life. In addition to the explicit programming, works may contain a hidden one, which is embodied by referring to genres with historically stable semantics. This feature of the genre is emphasized by R. G. Shitikova: "The genre is a kind of emotional and acoustic code that programs the consciousness of the recipient - composer, performer, listener – for a certain type of content and ways of its implementation" ^{[11, p. 40]}.

      We emphasize that the plays included in the cycle can be performed separately, as independent compositions. However, in the context of a cyclic composition, additional connections arise between them, forming a new semantic field, forming an integral work and leaving their mark on each of its component parts.

     Let us turn to the consideration of F.'s piano cycles. Busoni, which he created throughout his creative career. The first piano pieces appeared in 1873, when he was only 7 years old. Since 1876, thanks to a positive review by the authoritative critic E. Ganslick about the performance of the young musician and the "surprisingly serious and courageous character" of his own compositions [cit. according to: 12, p. 14] Busoni's works began to be published.

        Busoni has experienced various influences in his work, including romantic composers and, above all, Chopin and Schumann.   Continuing the romantic tradition, he constantly turned to the genre of the piano cycle of miniatures, preserving the genre models developed by them. In the early 80s Busoni was fascinated by the work of Brahms, to whom he dedicated the piano etudes Op. 16 and 17. In the 90s he discovered Liszt. Studying his work and moving away from the influence of German romantic composers, Busoni wrote: "I feel much less German" [cit. according to: 12, p. 27]. During the 70s and 90s, he created many piano cycles. They reveal connections with the works of these composers, but at the same time they form features that will further define his individual style.

       A number of Busoni's piano cycles can be attributed to generalized plot programming. Among them are "Village Holiday" (Op. 9), "Fantastic Stories" (Op. 12).

       The Australian composer and musicologist Larry Sitsky, who devoted his research to Busoni's piano work ^[13], characterizing this cycle, notes not only the coincidence of the opus numbers of this work and Schumann's Carnival, but also their undoubted connections: this is the poetic idea of the festival, realized in colorful, almost theatrical paintings due to the figurative and emotional brightness. Busoni's composition includes 6 plays, in the sequence of which a spectacular picture of a village holiday is recreated, covering the events of one day. Each of the parts has a specific name that captures specific scenes. The cycle opens with the play "Preparing for the holiday", which is based on the solemn chime of bells. The second part, the "Triumphal March", with its conscriptive, energetic character, further emphasizes the atmosphere of elation accompanying the holiday. The third play, "In the Church", while preserving the eventful outline of the composition, makes a contrast with its restrained character. The fourth, the "Fair", obviously depicts the culmination of the holiday, which is embodied in a fast pace, frequent change of tonal centers, and active movement. The fifth piece is called "Dance". This is a graceful slow waltz, involving all the participants of the festival in its intoxicating element. The celebration ends at night, as indicated by the last piece, called "Night" by the composer: the fun is over, but the mysterious atmosphere of the night retains echoes of the past event for a long time, which is embodied by reproducing individual fragments of the preceding parts of the cycle. In addition to the event canvas, the repetition of thematic material in the final part, the plays are connected in a single cycle by the logic of the tonal plan, in which the idea of arched framing (A-dur –a-moll), contrasting comparison of major and minor frets between individual parts and the predominance of major keys with a bright third ratio is realized. The scheme of the tonal plan in the sequence of parts of the cycle is as follows: A-dur – C-dur –e-moll – g-moll-G-dur –D-dur –a-moll.

            Busoni's piano cycle, called "Fantastic Stories" by the composer, is of undoubted interest. It is based on three plays: "Duel", "Baby Tsakhes", "Steenful Cave", vividly, literally visibly depicting events, including those well-known thanks to the fabulous grotesque story of the German romantic E. T. A. Hoffmann ("Baby Tsakhes nicknamed Zinnober") and the Scottish saga of the Steenful Cave, in the narrative of which the passion for enrichment is exposed. These three fantastic stories are united by a dark, mysterious character, embodied by the composer through the exaggerated use of a minor scale: the first piece is written in the key of c-moll, the second – d-moll, the third – f-moll. The major islands encountered in the process of development do not change the impression of anxious expectation, but only enhance it. In this cycle, Busoni constantly turns to visual art to create the necessary atmosphere. So, in the first play, this is an imitation of shots, realized by using short motifs supported by the structure of a reduced seventh chord, low register, frequent stops. It ends with the author's indication "misterioso". In the second piece, the composer draws an angular, ridiculous figure of the sharp-nosed freak Zinnober (Tsakhes), using staccato motifs with foreshortening, ending in jumps. In the third piece, to create a mystical atmosphere, the composer turns to the tempo of agitato assai, uses tremolo, harmonic figuration based on the sounds of a reduced seventh chord.

            Busoni's piano cycle "Medieval Foggy Pictures" (Op. 33) presents six vivid images captured in the following titles of the pieces: "Lady", "Cavalier", "Page", "Warrior", "Astrologer", "Troubadour". These are a kind of carnival masks. To characterize them, the composer uses a set of expressive means aimed at creating a memorable image. So, the Lady (No. 1) is accompanied by the tempo designation Moderato con delicatezzo, elegant, soft phrases of a song warehouse, colorful tercial juxtapositions of major chords. The persistent character of the Cavalier (No. 2) is conveyed by means of a sharp dotted rhythm, angular quart moves in the melody with a final tritone jump in the code. The graceful Page (No. 3) copies some of the features of his Lady, but his image is presented in a quiet dynamic and very fast pace. The Marching Warrior (No. 4) is an energetic character of this action, whom the composer endowed with a sweeping dotted rhythm and melodic movement associated with the golden course of French horns. The mysterious image of the Astrologer (No. 5) is embodied with the help of ornate chromatic melodic lines. The appearance of the Troubadour figure (No. 6) is quite expected to be accompanied by guitar strumming, followed by an expressive, wide–chanted melody. Note the clear tonal logic in this work, represented by a sequence with a tonal arch between the initial and final pieces: F-dur –a-moll –E-dur –C-dur –f-moll – F-dur. This cycle, embodying vivid carnival images, can be attributed to the picture-descriptive programming.

        Most of Busoni's piano cycles do not have specific, generalizing names, but appear in the list of compositions indicating the opus number and fixing a certain number of pieces: "Five Pieces" (Op. 3), "Three Pieces" (Op.4), "Two Pieces" (Op. 30), "Six Pieces" (Op. 33b). However, as a rule, names are given to each play, and logic is found in the arrangement of the parts of the cycle, which is realized in pictorial-descriptive or generalized programming.

      Busoni's piano cycle "Six Pieces" (Op. 33b, 1896), includes diverse, contrasting pieces called "Melancholy", "Fun", "Schercino", "Fantasy in the old spirit", "Finnish Ballad", "Everything Goes Away", focused on various genre and style models. Nevertheless, in their sequence, a certain dynamic is clearly manifested in the movement from a state of melancholy – through an appeal to ancient and national motives – to the final cheerful march with a title indicative of the final number of the cycle. Obviously, this type of programming can be classified as pictorial and descriptive.

      A similar embodiment of programmaticity can be found in the works of other Italian composers.

     The original solution of the pictorial-descriptive type is presented in A. Casella's piano cycle "Nine Pieces for Piano" Op. 24 (1914). All the pieces are written in a certain "spirit" (in modo), which is reflected in their title: "In the funeral spirit", "In the barbaric spirit", "In elegiac spirit", "In a joking spirit", "In an exotic spirit", "In the spirit of crying", "In the spirit of minuet", "In the spirit of tango", "In the peasant spirit". The main principle of their integration into a cycle is contrast, which is implemented at all levels of the organization of musical material. Each piece is a vivid picture corresponding to the specifics of the embodied state or image, for which the composer finds a very convincing, capacious expression. For example, the composer decides on a piece called "In the spirit of the minuet" in accordance with the laws of the classical genre. This is indicated by certain techniques of presentation of musical material and its development, the tempo designation "Tempo di minuetto classico", the form of composition. However, thanks to the complex of musical means found by the composer, the simple genre form typical of the minuet is filled with grace, refinement, and differs in significant originality. Casella significantly complicates the structure of chords, linear and coloristic functions of harmony play an important role. The predominantly quiet dynamics, the designations dolce e espressivo, dolcissimo, molto dolce, the alternation of various strokes in sound production, interesting textural finds – all this contributes to the creation of a refined, memorable image of an ancient dance, revived to life by the masterful hand of a modern composer.

           Many piano cycles are given names that direct the listeners' attention in a certain figurative and emotional direction. Among them, for example, such works by J. F. Malipiero as "Autumn Preludes" (1914), "Glimpses" (1917), "Masks of Passers-by" (1918), "Resonances" (1918), "Worm" (1922), in which each of the plays included in the cycle does not have However, the composer defines the tempo characteristics in sufficient detail, as if clarifying the figurative and emotional content of the parts. For example, in the cycle "Masks of Passers-by", which includes five pieces, the tempo designations are as follows: No. 1 "Allegro vivace. Molto capriccioso», №2 «Lento ma non troppo. Con una certa goffagine», №3 «Mosso spiritato», №4 «Un poco ritenuto. Con enfasi grottesca», №5 «Vivacissimo furiosamente».  Such cycles can most likely also be attributed to picture-descriptive programming.

Some program piano cycles contain a response to important events taking place in the world. Such works, for example, include "Pages of War" for piano in four hands (Op. 25, 1915) by A. Casella. This work captures the composer's reaction to the tragic events of the First World War. It includes four parts with the following titles: "In Belgium. The passage of the German heavy artillery", "In France. In front of the ruins of the Reims Cathedral", "In Russia. The attack of the Cossack cavalry", "In Alsace. Wooden crosses". In 1918, a fifth part was added "On the Adriatic. Italian battleships on the march."

      Cyclic compositions may include features of both a suite and a piano cycle. E. V. Nazaikinsky attributes such works to a transitional, mixed, intermediate type of cycles ^{[14, p. 386]}. From the point of view of the problem under study, they can be defined as works with generalized programmability. Among them, for example, "Five Pieces for Young Pianists" by V. Rieti, combining Prelude (No. 1), Canon (No. 2), Walset (No. 3), Tarantella (No. 4), Simple Polka (No. 5). Of the listed pieces, only the middle one – the Waltz – is related not to a certain established genre, but to an acrobatic exercise. Similarly, A. Casella's piano cycle "11 children's pieces for the piano" (Op. 35, 1920) is constructed. It contains, along with numbers whose names include various genres (No. 1 Prelude, No. 2 Diatonic Waltz, No. 3 Canon, No. 4 Bolero, No. 6 Siciliana, No. 7 Giga, No. 8 Minuet, No. 10 Lullaby, No. 11 Final Gallop), which most likely refers to this composition In addition to the suite, there are pieces that violate the "purity" of this genre: "In Memory of Clementi" (No. 5) and "Chime" (No. 9).

        There is no clear boundary between the types of programming highlighted above: a number of piano cycles contain different features at the same time.

         The emotional and figurative brightness, concreteness, and various types of programming characteristic of the piano cycles of Italian composers of the late XIX - first half of the XX century are reflected in later compositions. Thus, M. Castelnuovo-Tedesco named one of his works "Zoological Sonatina" (Op.187, 1960). It consists of four parts with the following names: "Dragonfly", "Snail", "Lizard", "Ant". This work can also be defined as a picture-descriptive program piano cycle.  

           The originality and national flavor is given to piano cycles by the introduction of parts based on Italian dance and song genres such as Siciliana, barcarola, tarantella, serenade, etc. Often, composers place them at the core of their compositions, thereby giving them an important meaning.  This feature is evident in a number of works by A. Casella. Thus, the serenade is the third piece of the five included in the suite "Marionettes", and the second of the three that form the basis of the piano cycle "Trinkets"; Siciliana is the sixth piece in the cycle "11 children's pieces for the piano". And in J. F. Malipiero's cycle "Six Pieces for Piano" (1907), the Italian serenade and tarantella, on the contrary, frame the entire composition.  "Suite in the Italian Style" (Op. 138, 1947) by M. Castelnuovo-Tedesco, dedicated to the Italian pianist Angelo Arciglione, consists of four parts: Prelude, Galliard, Siciliana, Tarantella, three of which are associated with national genres.

         In addition to the above–mentioned properties characteristic of the program piano cycles of Italian composers, such as the brightness of images associated with the theatricality inherent in Italian art, the integrity of compositions provided by the connections between individual parts, the logic of tonal development, reliance on national genres, we also highlight the melodiousness coming from the vocal nature of Italian musical culture. 

         Summarizing the observations on the implementation of various types of programming in the piano cycles of Italian composers, we can conclude that they are included in the broad mainstream of the program compositions of Western European Romantic composers of the XIX century, variously and originally implementing the genre model formed by the middle of this century. The most characteristic types of programming in the considered works are generalized-plot and pictorial-descriptive.

J.F.Malipiero: Six Pieces for Piano (1907)

Serenata (Serenade)

Skerzando (Skerzando)

Notturno pastorale (Pastoral nocturne)

Bizzaria (A Quirk)

All'alba (At Dawn)

Tarantella (Tarantella)

Vittorio Rieti: Five Pieces for Young Pianists (1942):

Foreplay

The Canon

Walset

Tarantella

A simple polka

Castelnuovo-Tedesco Mario: Suite in Italian Style (Op. 138, 1947) (dedicated to the Italian pianist Angelo Arciglione)

Foreplay

Galliard

Siciliana

Tarantella