Overcoming the consequences of crop failures and helping victims of famine in the Penza province in the 1860s-1890s.

Kondalova Natalia ORCID: 0009-0004-0026-5815 PhD in History Senior lecturer; Document Science, History and Law Department; MIREA — Russian Technological University 78 Vernadsky Avenue, Moscow, 119454, Russia natalja-kondalova@rambler.ru

Russian historiography traditionally pays close attention to agrarian socio-economic problems. The subject of historical science research is increasingly becoming the causes, scale, demographic consequences of famine, the role of public organizations and the state in eliminating the consequences of the famine years in the Russian Empire, especially the disasters of 1891-1892 ^{[1, 2]}. At the same time, regional features of crop failures and famine are fragmentary and insufficiently studied ^{[2, p. 94]}. Mainly, certain issues related to food security were touched upon in the context of the history of zemstvo institutions (Polosin S. N. Socio-economic activity of zemstvo institutions of the Penza Region in 1865-1917 (based on the materials of the Penza province): dis. ... candidate of Historical Sciences. Penza. 1999; Sineva N. Y. Organization and main activities of the zemstvo institutions of the Penza province: 1865-1890: dis. ... candidate of Historical Sciences. Penza, 2000; Isaev A.V. State power and local self-government in the Penza province in the second half of the XIX century: dissertation of the Candidate of Historical Sciences. Penza, 2006.). We note a small number of works directly devoted to the history of famine based on the materials of the Penza province ^{[3, 4, 5, 6]}. The special attention of researchers to the contribution of charitable organizations and local governments in overcoming the consequences of the national disaster of 1891-1892 is characteristic. Thus, the problem under study needs a full and detailed analysis in terms of the causes and consequences of the famine years, the directions and results of joint activities of the government, the zemstvo and philanthropists aimed at helping victims.

In the annual total damage from various disasters in the Penza province, the largest share in unfavorable weather conditions in the post-reform years belonged to crop failures. Let's turn to their reasons.

Penza province belonged to the so-called agricultural region with a predominance of fertile soils. By the beginning of the study period, only about 5% of the 1.1 million population of the province were not engaged in farming. Most of the bread produced, more than 2.5 million quarters, was consumed by local residents. Grain also went to distilleries, was transported to Nizhny Novgorod, Vladimir and Tambov provinces, and was also floated to the large center of grain trade Rybinsk ^{[7, p. 44]}.

Population growth and soil depletion led to a shortage of land. Agricultural work was complicated by natural and climatic conditions. The province was located between 52 and 55 parallels of north latitude and 60 and 64 parallels of east longitude, was surrounded by Tambov province from the west, Saratov province from the south, Simbirsk Province from the east, Nizhny Novgorod Province from the north ^{[8, p. 1]}. According to contemporaries, although Penza province belonged geographically to a temperate climate, the winter weather was quite long – "from the end of October to April" ^{[7, p. 30]}. On the territory of the province, air transport from west to east prevailed, therefore, the continentality of the climate increased in this direction. The northern and eastern regions of the province were characterized by higher humidity and lower temperatures, so frosts were more common here. In summer, hot weather was established, drought often occurred, and the southeastern territories were the driest.

The consequences of adverse weather events were aggravated by the invasion of insect pests: pink silkworm caterpillars, pigheads, locusts ^{[9, l. 1]}. The inhabitants of the province engaged in agriculture most often found themselves defenseless in front of them, since they could not independently determine the species of insects and develop the most effective measures to combat them.

Hail storms were another common cause of crop failures. They hit the Penza province annually and were poorly predicted. The most severe consequences of hail storms occurred in 1876, 1882 and 1884. The hailstorms that occurred in 1890 especially worsened the harvest of bread: hail broke 22,386 tithes of bread for a total cost of 505901 rubles ^{[10, p. 3]}. Given the famine that occurred in 1891, such losses were very difficult to experience.

Floods also caused significant damage to agriculture. Both large (Sura, Moksha) and small rivers flowed through the territory of the Penza province, a strong rise in which led to flooding of the land occupied by agricultural crops. Major floods in the province caused by spring snowmelt occurred in 1879. Gorodishchensk and Moksha counties suffered the most from them, where, according to old-timers, such spills had not happened for more than 30 years ^{[11, l. 4ob]}.

In the second half of the 19th century, the "hungry" in the Russian Empire became 1873, 1880, 1883, 1891, 1892, 1897 and 1898 ^{[12, p. 11]}. The most difficult food situation in Penza province was in 1882-1883 and 1891-1892. The harvest in these periods turned out to be really low compared to previous years. Thus, the harvest of rye, the most common crop, amounted to 3848,131 quarters in 1881, 275,1100 quarters in 1882, and 1992,308 quarters in 1883 ^{[13, l. 20; 14, p. 2; 15, p. 3]}. It is noteworthy that the data collected by the Central Statistical Committee of the Ministry of Internal Affairs on the grain harvest indicated higher yields on landowners' lands than on peasant fields. After the reform of 1861, the peasants received lands of inferior quality and lower fertility: loam, sandstone, soil with an admixture of stone. Under such conditions of agriculture, natural disasters struck a blow from which the peasantry could not recover for a long time. This was especially evident in the early 1890s, when already in the autumn of 1891, at least 600 thousand peasants had a difficult food situation, which amounted to more than 40% of the population of the province ^{[16, L. 15ob]}. In 1890, due to the low snow and warm winter, spring turned out to be early and winter seedlings everywhere in the Penza province were assessed as satisfactory. Soon after the sowing of spring loaves, a drought set in, and the harvest prospects changed for the worse. And already in May, winter came out sparsely in all counties, soon began to turn yellow and suffered, among other things, in the territory of 22368 dessiatines from summer hail ^{[10, p. 3]}. The yield of rye in 1891, compared with 1890, decreased from sam-3.2 to sam-1.2. In such conditions, the population employed in agriculture was on the verge of starvation. The average price of main products doubled: for rye (for a quarter) – from 5 rubles 49 kopecks to 10 rubles 76 kopecks, for rye flour (per pood) – from 61 kopecks to 1 ruble 14 kopecks ^{[17, p. 7]}. The crop failure of 1891-1892 also dealt a blow to livestock: lack of feed due to price increases for oats and hay and epizootics forced farmers to sell livestock at low prices. The events of 1891-1892 became a national disaster not only in the Penza province, but also in the Russian Empire as a whole ^{[18, p. 8]}.

Of course, the famine was a natural result not only of natural anomalies, but was also caused by agronomic reasons. It should be noted that the quality of soil cultivation is extremely low. The expansion of wheat crops as an export crop at the expense of pasture areas led to a decrease in livestock, lack of proper fertilizer and depletion of fertile soils. Another noteworthy reason: the threat of famine was increasing due to speculative transactions. The report of the Penza governor for 1879 stated: "... due to the high demand for bread abroad, its prices reached unprecedented sizes in the Penza province: a quarter of rye was sold for more than 8 rubles. Of course, it was difficult for a peasant who was constantly in need of money to resist the temptation to sell his bread at an expensive price, and many sold their last reserves, hoping to replenish them when the price of bread fell. But their calculations did not come true, bread is still gradually becoming more expensive and peasants who have sold their bread dearly have to buy even more expensive for food" ^{[8, p. 9]}. 

So, crop failures were a regular occurrence in the Penza province. They were caused by various reasons of their origin: climatic and agronomic. Sometimes crop failures led to a general decline in agriculture and famine. The lack of knowledge about the patterns of crop failures made them difficult to predict in the life of the province, overcoming the consequences of which became one of the most important tasks of various social institutions.

In this regard, there are two areas of activity in the practice of government and zemstvo institutions: the organization of assistance to the hungry and the creation of conditions for the speedy restoration of agriculture. One of the important measures aimed at preventing the consequences of crop failures should be called the formation of a local food security system. Let's note two important components of this system – grain spare stores and food capitals.

It is noteworthy that as early as the law of 1834 established the formation of special reserves to provide the population with food and seeds in critical situations ^{[19, p. 187]}. Therefore, the Penza Zemstvo, which took control of grain stocks and food capitals, could take advantage of more than thirty years of experience in organizing this type of assistance to the population and improve activities in this direction. The first step was a full-scale inspection, which revealed many violations and deviations from the prescribed regulations: the law of 1834 did not apply to a number of rural societies, there was a lack of proper control over the receipt and repayment of loans everywhere, the neglected condition of the premises in which grain quickly deteriorated and became unusable. As a response to the audit, the provincial zemstvo assembly adopted a decision on the rules for collecting grain in public storages common to all counties, which obliged rural societies to transfer the grain collection process, the determination of the quantity and timing of its delivery to the county zemstvo administrations. If the peasant was unable to contribute his share, the principle of mutual responsibility began to operate (individualization of the issuance and payment of loans occurred only in 1900). Arrears were collected by county councils mainly before all other contributions made by the peasantry. As a result, the purposeful work of the zemstvo to create food funds led in 25 years to an increase in the number of bread shops operating in the province from 1067 to 2105, to the construction of at least one barn in each village, to the issuance of interest-free loans of 300 rubles for three years to maintain them in proper condition ^{[20, p. 59]}.

Such close attention to the grain organization had its own specific positive results: it helped to save the food supply system that was on the verge of destruction, made it possible for the population at risk to receive well-preserved grain in case of crop failure. However, the imperfection of the system gradually became more and more pronounced, and the efforts of the zemstvo did not lead to the desired results: arrears on loans grew, the ability to provide only partial support to those in need remained.

It is worth paying attention to food capital. It was established from each audit soul by the law of 1834 and from 1842 amounted to 48 kopecks from peasants and 1 ruble from burghers and shop workers ^{[21, p. 103]}. Initially, the provincial authorities were engaged in the formation of food capital. According to the reform of the zemstvo self-government in 1864, the powers to collect funds were transferred to the zemstvos. In 1865, 502,778 souls participated in the compilation of food capital in the Penza province: 480,333 peasants and 22,445 burghers and shop workers. The food capital amounted to 725,183 rubles. 88 kopecks, almost three times higher than the norm established for it. Part of the amount, namely 469765 rubles. 71 kopecks, was received for the formation of general imperial capital intended to replenish provincial capitals in case of their shortage and meet the needs of the population in food and seed loans ^{[20, p. 61; 22, p. 192]}. The general imperial capital became the last safety cushion for provincial society. In September 1891, on the eve of the largest famine, food capital in the province was 416088 rubles, of which only 21178 rubles were available. Debts amounted to 2956755 rubles, of which 2561845 rubles. they were a debt to the general imperial food capital ^{[23, p. 13]}.

Certain problems have arisen with grain stocks. Already at the beginning of the post-reform period, it turned out that cash reserves were insufficient compared to the needs of the population, which, however, was difficult to establish, since the peasants were completely enrolled in the number of victims, hiding their true situation, counting on an interest-free loan. At the beginning of 1866, the Ministry of Internal Affairs issued an order on the transfer by the provincial Commission of National Food and the Chamber of State Property to zemstvo institutions of all cases concerning grain spare stores. There were 235906 quarters of grain stocks, 471749 quarters were in loans and arrears ^{[20, p. 61]}. Grain stores were replenished with grain, based on the storage rate of 1.5 quarters of bread per audit soul ^{[24, p. 88]}. Consequently, taking into account the number of audit souls, bread stocks in public stores were only one third of the required amount. As of September 1891, 13279 quarters of winter and 23284 quarters of spring bread were available in grocery stores, 457768 and 242704 quarters were in debt for loans and unpaid salaries ^{[23, p. 12]}. Thus, the cash grain reserves of the province could not cover the demands in conditions of full-scale famine. In this case, additional funds had to be found to address the issue of food shortages.

The state of the local food security system indicates that the zemstvo was forced to repeatedly turn to the government for help, which was expressed in the issuance of loans, which were difficult and long to repay. Thus, 1869 became disastrous for the peasant population of the Penza province. The provincial zemstvo assembly appealed to the government for a loan from the total food capital of the empire: initially 197,828 rubles, and then another 200 thousand rubles, which were sent to the disposal of the provincial council and sent to issue food loans ^{[20, p. 77]}. For the second time, the Zemstvo had to apply for a loan from the general food capital of the empire at the end of 1880. The most highly approved regulation of the Committee of Ministers allocated 150 thousand rubles ^{[20, p. 78]}. In the lean years of 1883 and 1891, 650 thousand rubles and 340 thousand rubles were issued as loans, respectively, and the first of them was repaid by the province within seven years. In 1883, a loan was required, first in the amount of 350 thousand rubles, exclusively for sowing fields, and then in 300 thousand rubles. for the food of the population, but only 166 thousand of the latter were spent ^{[20, p. 80]}. When resolving this loan, the government ordered that loans to the population be issued not in money, but in bread, or, if the purchase of seed grain is carried out by peasants with the permission of the zemstvo, by satisfying the sellers of bread with the amounts due for the actual harvesting of the grain required for seeds. This measure was aimed at curbing the abuse of peasants in the sale of cash loans for other purposes.

Due to the complete and widespread crop failure, local authorities also took emergency measures. During the famine of 1891-1892, bread was purchased from the Ostsee and southern provinces, which was transported by rail. However, due to the accumulation of bread at some stations, it was necessary to reorient to other markets ^{[17, p. 12]}. In general, the purchase of bread by representatives of the zemstvos of various provinces was late, turned out to be poorly organized and required high costs ^{[25, pp. 124-125]}.

In 1891-1892, public works for peasants were organized in the Russian Empire for the purpose of additional earnings. According to recent studies, public works in most regions did not arouse popular enthusiasm, since they were perceived as a return of corvee traditions ^{[26, p. 11]}. In the Penza province, on the contrary, this measure proved to be in demand ^{[27, p. 109]}. As a result of the implementation of the imperial decree, the development of forests in the specific possessions of Moksha and Saransk counties was carried out, as well as the extraction and delivery of stone to Penza for laying streets for the improvement of Cathedral square, for which the rural population received 86052 rubles. 4 kopecks ^{[17, p. 17]}.

It is noteworthy that the Zemstvo has repeatedly raised the issue of agricultural insurance. In the second half of the 19th century, similar discussions were held in many provinces and concerned primarily the insurance of fields against hail storms ^{[28, p. 103]}. In the Penza province, the issue of this kind of insurance was first raised in 1873. The Nizhnelomovsky district zemstvo assembly submitted to the provincial assembly the issue of mandatory zemstvo insurance of grain crops against hail storms. The provincial assembly was instructed to discuss this proposal in all county zemstvo assemblies, after which opinions were collected throughout the year. Insurance was recognized as a useful measure, but too burdensome for the majority of the population engaged in agriculture. Taking into account, on the one hand, considerable damage, and on the other, the high amount of insurance premiums, it was proposed to introduce voluntary insurance, the implementation of which in practice was postponed, as in most provinces of the Russian Empire.

In recent historiography, it is noted that the organization of famine relief was universally associated with the growth of public consciousness ^{[26, p. 9]}. Charitable organizations that aimed to prevent mass starvation deaths made a significant contribution to helping peasants in need in the Penza province. Charitable committees were opened in all counties and subordinated to the Provincial Charitable Committee ^{[6, p. 17]}. During the discussions on the most effective form of assistance, charitable circles in various counties opted for the organization of public canteens. On December 1, 1891, the Moksha Ladies' Charity Circle opened the first free canteen for the needy, where 1.5 pounds of rye bread and a portion of lean cabbage soup or pea soup were given out on special tickets ^{[29, L. 1]}. However, there were many more starving people than the canteen was able to serve: an additional 50 beggars who received leftover hot food visited it daily. A certain contribution to this good deed was made by the mayor and the district police officer, who took up the arrangement of the dining room, the organization of cooking, the supply of water and firewood. In total, in 1891-1892, at least 93 canteens were opened in the province ^{[6, p. 17]}.

Charity takes on an all-religious character. It is necessary to pay tribute to the representatives of the intelligentsia and merchants. In December 1891, in the village of Kucki, Penza district, merchant MA Kuznetsova and private bailiff A. G. Pokrovsky opened a canteen with funds raised by them among their acquaintances. In January of the following year, in the village of Belikov, Moksha district, A. I. Zachinskaya used the funds received from a concert organized in Moscow for the benefit of the hungry (865 rubles) and lectures by professor of Moscow University V. O. Klyuchevsky (500 rubles) to open a canteen for 60 people ^{[29, L. 68]}.

There was also peasant mutual assistance. Well-to-do peasants lent food to needy neighbors without interest, and sometimes took over the maintenance of rural charity canteens for a while. So, in January 1892, one of the peasants of the village of Kochelaevo, Narovchatsky district, wished to maintain a local canteen for half a month at his own expense. This charity was aimed at small groups of hungry people and organized with small funds. Peasants could count on 1.5 pounds of bread, lean soup with potatoes or liquid peas, often not daily, if the number of inhabitants of the settlement exceeded the permissible number of people served in the dining room, but "they could not expect this mercy", since the poor ate "pure quinoa without flour admixture" ^{[29, l. 90ob]}.

The church, which allocated some sums for the establishment of canteens, could not be far from the tragic events of the famine years. So, in the village of Blinovka, Nizhnelomovsky district, the parish trusteeship donated 50 rubles, and 15 rubles were allocated from the church sums. The missionary of the Holy Synod, Archpriest Kryuchkov, received 500 rubles and 180 pounds of breadcrumbs to distribute to the poor residents of the village of Poim of the Chembarsky district ^{[29, l. 98]}.

The opening of the canteens was necessarily accompanied by financial difficulties, the solution of which required the assistance of the Penza Provincial Charitable Committee. However, he had only minimal amounts, so volost and rural guardianship, as well as private individuals, could count on only a small amount of support in the form of bread. But this measure did not affect all persons either: able-bodied male peasants, as well as those who took out a loan from food capital, were not recognized as hungry, although in fact they often occupied a significant niche among those in need of state support and charity.

The estate corporation of the Penza nobility made a feasible contribution to the charitable cause. During the famine of 1869-1870 The Penza noble Deputy Assembly managed to organize financial support in the amount of 2,870 rubles. 73 kopecks ^{[30, l. 254]}. In the summer of 1891, assistance was provided to the small-scale nobles of Krasnoslobodsky district, which was located along with Gorodishchensky district in the zone of the most risky agriculture. The noble deputy Assembly placed at the disposal of the Krasnoslobodsk leader funds free at that time from estimated appointments from noble sums in the amount of 1,188 rubles, as well as 212 rubles from the capital collected in 1869, "for the purchase of seed rye for irrevocable distribution to the most deficient nobles" ^{[4, p. 35]}.

Thus, crop failures caused by various causes, in particular weather anomalies, soil depletion, and plowing of pasture lands, became a severe test for the population of the Penza province. During the lean years, which happened quite often, various measures were taken in the province to prevent hunger: the state food security system was used, charitable assistance was provided. During the period under study, both the content and the organizational form of measures aimed at overcoming the consequences of crop failures underwent changes. With the advent of zemstvos, the role of local governments has increased. Public works were introduced and proved to be more successful than in many regions, providing additional income. For the first time, the issue of agricultural insurance was widely discussed. At the same time, the insufficient amount of grain stocks in public rural shops made it possible to meet the needs of the population for food and seeding fields only in case of infrequent shortages of bread or in case of accidental disasters. In the generally lean years, it was necessary to apply for benefits from the general food capital of the empire. Despite all the difficulties and problems of supporting the needy population, the joint activities of the authorities and the public in this direction had one important result: the absence of mass deaths among the hungry.