On the question of natural duties and the design of tracts in the Social Life of the Inner Horde of the late XIX - early XX century

Bovaev Nikolai Borisovich ORCID: 0009-0007-1466-6769 Teacher, Department of History of Russia, Records Science and Archival Science, Kalmyk State University named after B.B. Gorodoviko 358000, Russia, Elista, Pushkin Republic str., 11 nikbov678@gmail.com Other publications by this author

By the end of the XIX century, the inhabitants of the Inner Horde, especially the Kazakhs, were obliged to perform three basic natural duties. The revision note, compiled by State Councilor Kraft, a former official of special assignments at the Ministry of Internal Affairs, was handed over to the Governor on September 13, 1905 under No. 19226. It noted the incorrect and destructive formulation of these duties, especially with regard to underwater duty, the extermination of ground squirrels and the protection of horses with the property of Ural Cossacks during seasonal fishing ^{[1, L.1]}.

State Councilor Kraft testified that all three categories of natural duties were extremely ruinous for the Kazakh population. He also pointed out that the last two categories – the extermination of ground squirrels and the protection of the property of the Cossacks – were not really necessary for the population.

Gopher duty

The corresponding duty to the population of the Horde, known as the gopher duty, was established in 1894 by the governor of the Astrakhan province with the permission of the Ministry of Internal Affairs. This decision was made in connection with the appearance of a huge number of ground squirrels in the Tsarevsky district and adjacent territories of the Horde in 1893, which threatened the rural population.

However, as Kraft pointed out, this duty has become unnecessary, since the gopher pest has practically disappeared, but at the same time the Kyrgyz taxation norms and pest control methods have remained unchanged. Because of this, the population, who needed to present a certain number of ground squirrels, often searched for them in foreign territories or acquired them from neighboring districts ^{[2, L.2]}.

A special meeting of the commission for the extermination of ground squirrels in the Astrakhan province determined the rate of mandatory destruction of one ground squirrel for every 24 tithes of land in the Kazakh steppe. In accordance with this calculation, it was found that 350,000 pieces of ground squirrels were required to be destroyed in the Horde annually. Taking into account the spread of ground squirrels in the Horde and the level of harm caused by them, the Provisional Council adopted a resolution dated February 16, 1894, establishing the following annual norms of mandatory extermination of ground squirrels for Kazakhs in parts:

- 65,000 gophers in the Torgun, Kamysh-Samara parts, and in the first primorsky district;

- 50,000 gophers in the Kalmyk and Naryn parts;

- 35,000 gophers in the Talovskaya part and 20,000 gophers in the second primorsky district.

The specified number of ground squirrels was evenly distributed among the owners of the tents of each part and district of the Horde ^{[14, l.15]}.

To confirm the fulfillment of the obligation to exterminate ground squirrels, Kazakhs, by analogy with the rural population of the districts of the Astrakhan province, had to provide gopher paws to their superiors. These paws were then burned by a special commission in the presence of the ruler or another Horde official, about which the relevant acts were drawn up.

Although the population of the Horde did not complain about the burden and difficulty of this duty and did not file petitions for its abolition, nevertheless, it was considered superfluous and redundant. The number of ground squirrels in the Horde was noticeably decreasing every year, especially in the central parts of the Horde, where all agricultural crops were moved over considerable distances.

The abolition of this duty for the population was very desirable, especially considering the fact that the ground squirrel did not pose a particular danger to the Kazakh economy, at least in comparison with the rural population of the adjacent counties of the Horde, where this pest caused great damage to agriculture. If the extermination of ground squirrels in the Horde was considered a necessary measure for the well-being of neighboring territories, then, according to the Provisional Council, it was necessary to exterminate ground squirrels by hiring specialists, at the expense of special funds allocated for pest control, and to carry it out in places where ground squirrels were really present in large numbers, and not everywhere in the Horde with a predetermined number as it was done earlier ^{[14, L.15]}.

Duty to protect horses and property of the Ural Cossacks

With regard to the duty to protect Cossack horses and property during seasonal fishing, Kraft stated that such an order had no reasonable reasons. He believed that the protection of property should be the responsibility of its owner. The appointment of Kazakhs to protect other people's property, especially on the border territories with the Cossacks, led to significant expenses and carried a large financial burden for the population, especially in the summer. In addition, such measures led to an incorrect distribution of duties of officials of the Horde administration, who, taking advantage of this, deviated from their direct duties.

Regarding the natural duty of the Kazakhs of the Inner Horde to protect the horses and property of the Ural Cossacks during seasonal fishing, established in 1896, by the decree of the Governor of the Astrakhan Province to the Provisional Council of September 25, 1905 No. 4376, it was no longer provided for ^{[15, L.16]}. The Governor informed the Council that he did not consider it possible to continue this extremely unfair natural service for the Kazakhs and had already informed the Ural Cossack ataman about it. Instead, it is proposed that the participation of Kazakhs in the protection of Cossack property during seasonal fishing should be allowed only if they are provided with a certain remuneration from regional funds established for the picket service of Kazakhs of the Ural region.

Underwater duty and design of the tract system

The underwater duty, which was established to ensure the passage of officials through the steppe territories, turned out to be unevenly distributed among the population, as it was found out during the audit. Most of this responsibility fell on the part of the population through whose territory the passage was carried out, while the rest of the population did not incur any expenses in this regard.

In addition, officials of the native administration, such as rulers, foremen and deputies, also used free horses, receiving special funds for their business trips ^{[4, L.4]}.

With this in mind, the Ministry of Internal Affairs proposed to consider the possibility of replacing the natural service with money. For a more equitable distribution of underwater duty, it was proposed to create zemstvo-philistine tracts in the steppe environs of the Horde, where a certain number of horses were kept at stations for a certain fee, which was collected evenly from the entire Kazakh population. Thus, the main directions of the most important paths were developed, and the necessary amounts for the implementation of this measure were approximately calculated, amounting to 20,000 rubles annually ^{[5, L.5]}. These amounts were planned to be collected from existing fees from the population, which were recognized as excessive and ineffective during the audit, and, if necessary, the introduction of new fees, which were determined by the population in accordance with the verdicts of public meetings.

From the materials provided by the Provisional Council, it became known that underwater conscription in the Horde existed as early as the 1870s, and since then several attempts have been made to convert the existing natural conscription into monetary form, based on the principle of uniform distribution of necessary payments among the entire Kazakh population.

The Ministry of Internal Affairs, having considered the petition of the Provisional Council No. 3188 dated July 17, 1903, proposed to the Provisional Council a preliminary transformation of the Horde's management in order to streamline underwater conscription and submit the issue to a new consideration. The proposal noted that in the steppe regions, where conditions were similar to the Inner Horde, the provision of funds for travel across the steppe was carried out in a different, more economical way ^{[5, L.5]}.

Specifically, it was pointed out that horses for traveling through the steppe were required exclusively for officials, since officials from the Kazakhs made trips on their own horses. In this regard, the authorities of the mentioned regions considered it necessary to keep groups of traveling horses in the places where officials were staying, which were allocated as needed in an amount sufficient for each trip, depending on time and distance. The maintenance of such groups and horses did not require significant expenses, and in the Inner Horde could be carried out without additional taxation of the population. Financing could be carried out at the expense of the zemstvo fee, which was levied for documents issued for the right to trade within the Horde.

However, the measure proposed by the Ministry in practice did not lead to a significant reduction in the underwater duty of the local population, since the legislation of the Inner Horde did not specify that Kazakh officials should ride their own horses. In fact, practice has shown that Kazakh officials had the right to use state horses for official trips on an equal basis with Russian officials.

In this regard, the maintenance of groups of horses in the implementation of the Ministry's proposal would require not only in the places where officials stay, but also for all Kazakh officials. However, the small proceeds from the zemstvo fee levied in the Horde from trade documents would not be enough to finance such maintenance. In 1905, only 1209 rubles were received, in 1906 – 1103 rubles, and in 1907 – 1133 rubles ^{[6, L.6]}.

Suppose that the maintenance of each horse with an annual rent for each troika cost 100 rubles, including the repair of carriages and harness. Based on these data, it can be concluded that the amount of the zemstvo fee from trade documents allowed to keep up to 8 triples of horses, as well as provide the necessary number of crew and harness. However, all this was far from enough to ensure the full composition of the Kazakh administration, whose number exceeded 250 people.

There were two public highways in the Horde with permanent horse shows and stationary premises for officials: Khan's rate - Kazanka, and Khan's rate - Saykhin (near the station of the Astrakhan Railway). The first of these tracts existed at the beginning of the last century. In the orders issued by Khan Dzhangir in 1835, it was indicated that some Kazakhs living in this tract received extensive haymaking and pasture lands from the khan for use and pledged to keep horses for the transportation of Khan's correspondence and business travelers ^{[6, L.6]}.

Over time, the population of the Horde has increased, and the amount of suitable land has decreased due to the spread of sandy spaces. Kazakh senior societies seized the lands allocated by the khan from the station keepers and replaced them with payments in money that the station keepers have been paying up to now. Only one owner of the Alachin station continued to receive payment in the form of mowing lands. The Khan's Rate – Kazanka highway with a length of 200 versts had up to six stations. This highway was important not only for the area through which he passed, but also for the entire Horde. Consequently, participation in its arrangement and maintenance was prescribed not only to residents of roadside settlements, but also to the entire population of the Inner Horde. At the same time, the maintenance of this tract was carried out by the senior societies through whose territory it passed.

The average fee for each horse ranged from 35 to 59 rubles per month. The same fee also included the initial arrangement of each station with the necessary equipment, such as carriages, harnesses and devices for stopping travelers for the night, as well as repairs and other expenses. For example, in the Khan's rate, the maintenance of 9 horses cost up to 1,638 rubles, which was about 182 rubles for each horse ^{[7, L.7]}. However, even such a relatively high fee was considered insufficient due to the rising cost of living. Thus, the negligible payment received by the station keepers along the Khan's Rate – Kazanka highway led to an extremely unsatisfactory condition of the highway itself. This was explained by the fact that roadside residents were burdened with a lot of payments for state and public needs.

The second of the existing tracts, which stretched from the Khan's headquarters to the Saikhin railway station, had a length of 49 versts. It was formed in 1906, after the beginning of passenger traffic on the Astrakhan railway line. In accordance with the agreement reached with the Provisional Council for 5 years, 10 horses with the necessary equipment were fixed here, and as a payment it was proposed to mow one of the four haymaking sites. This right had a cost from 1000 to 1400 rubles annually, depending on the yield in a particular year. The keepers of the station posts on both tracts, in accordance with the terms of the contract with the Provisional Council, were obliged to provide horses to passing officials at a distance of up to 30 versts from the tracts. They also had to carry out the migration of all station equipment in spring and autumn to the summer and winter places of residence of Kazakhs simultaneously with the migration of their fellow socialites ^{[7, L.7]}.

A special station with nine horses and equipment was provided for the departure of officials from the Khan's headquarters. The owner of this item received a payment of up to 1,638 rubles from the State Treasury, which has been included in the budget of the Ministry of Internal Affairs annually since 1877. There was also a station for the departure of officials from the village of Novaya Kazanka, in which there were four horses. The owner of this point received up to 350 rubles for 6 horses from merchants and other residents of the village ^{[8, L.8]}.

Thus, only two highways with a total length of 249 versts were used for official trips around the Horde. The introduction of the Astrakhan railway line, which crossed the lands of the Horde along the western border, did not significantly improve official travel. Railway services could be used only by those officials who needed to travel to the village of Talovka, Astrakhan or to the first and second primorsky districts. If it was necessary to go to the interior of the Horde, then the use of railway services was useless. In addition, a significant part of Kazakh officials did not receive any monetary allowance.

The total number of administrative persons sent on official trips to the Horde was 124 people. In addition to them, inspectors of public schools and taxes, senior, county and veterinary doctors worked in the Horde. In addition, seventeen paramedic stations were scattered in the steppe. All these officials often made trips within their districts in connection with the performance of official duties ^{[8, L.8]}.

To carry out the postal service, the Horde officials appointed messengers. These are employees who performed duties similar to those of rural foremen and centurions. Due to the spread of the Kazakh population, their work required a lot of time for horseback riding. The messengers were also instructed to supply underwater animals for transportation by officials of the Kazakh administration.

10968 rubles were allocated annually for the maintenance of messengers according to the estimates of the Ministry of Internal Affairs, and under the Provisional Council the amount was up to 768 rubles ^{[13, L.13]}.

All the mentioned officials carried out trips throughout the Inner Horde in order to obtain sled animals in kind from the population. Many complaints were spread about the abuse and arbitrariness of officials and messengers when using sled animals. These complaints were common practice, and they were recognized as fair, which hindered successful trips. In response to this, the Provisional Council offered the population to take on the costs of replacing the existing natural underwater service with money. The approximate amount needed for this was estimated, and a draft of measures was drawn up that could completely replace the condemned service and fairly distribute the necessary payments. On April 8, 1908, the Provisional Council sent a circular proposal to discuss the issue of replacing the natural underwater service. At the same time, some members of the Provisional Council, recognizing the unacceptability of the existing form of underwater conscription, refused to replace it, explaining their decision by the poverty of the population ^{[9, L.9]}.

Only in individual meetings, especially those organized by societies containing station stations on the Khan's Rate – Kazanka highway, as well as those located near the residences of the rulers, expressed the full willingness of the population to support the proposals of the Council and allocate the necessary amounts. At the same time, based on the reviewed sentences submitted by the societies, the Provisional Council came to the conclusion that the refusal of most societies was caused not so much by poverty or debt of the population, but rather by its low culture and desire to shift all the burdens of duty to those societies that happened to be near travel roads or in the vicinity of the residences of officials.

The minority of the population who agreed with the reform of conscription was also poor and had debts, but they, due to accidental circumstances, carried almost the entire burden of underwater conscription on their shoulders. They had to constantly give their resources to passing officials or officials, as well as pay for the expenses of station points on the highways ^{[10, L.10]}.

According to the opinion of the Provisional Council, the transfer of natural underwater service to monetary reform is possible through the legislative establishment of zemstvo fees in the Inner Horde. To settle this process , it was proposed to establish zemstvo fees on the following grounds:

- the connection of the administrative center of the Inner Horde, the Khan's Rate, with the rates of all 7 rulers of the parts by permanent zemstvo tracts;

- preservation of the existing composition of stations on the Khanskaya Stavka – Kazanka highway (200 versts), ensuring the constant maintenance of 9 horses at each station;

- arrangement of the highway from the Tulengutovskaya station to the headquarters of the ruler of the Naryn part (50 versts), providing for one station point with the maintenance of two horses and camels;

- establishment of the Khan's Rate – Talovka tract (165 versts) with up to six animals at each station;

- establishment of the Talovka – Kazanka tract – Sar-Tube tract - summer headquarters of the ruler of the first Primorsky district – Trekhbratinsky Fishery (360 versts) with the installation of twelve station stations containing eleven animals each;

- establishment of a new highway from the winter headquarters of the ruler of the first Primorsky district to the village of Korduana of the Krasnoyarsk district of the Astrakhan province (180 versts) with the presence of seven stations containing six animals each.

The total length of all planned routes was about 930 versts, and the total number of station points was 31, with the presence of 196 mounts ^{[11, l.11]}.

The right to use the proposed highways was to be granted to all personnel serving in the Inner Horde, as well as to outsiders traveling on official business.

The person who was going to make the trip had to notify the ruler in advance of the time and place of his trip, and the ruler, in turn, sent the necessary number of animals from his points to the designated places in accordance with the route.

Thus, it was planned to provide a sufficient number of animals to service the trips and trips of officials and to provide communication between different areas within the Horde. It is known that the average cost of keeping one adult animal, including winter and summer quarters, station equipment and other necessary items, did not exceed 100 rubles per year. It is also worth noting that the Provisional Council purchased crews for their use by departing officials. However, over time, these crews completely wore out, and no more than 175 rubles a year were allocated for replacement and repair. As a result, questions about the cost of keeping tracts and servicing animals were taken into account in the plans of the Provisional Council, and it was supposed to carry out these activities through bidding with the participation of local residents ^{[12, L.12]}.

Due to the Russian-Japanese war that began in 1904 and the subsequent events of the revolutions, plans for the reform of the Horde administration were postponed indefinitely ^{[16, l.23]}. The Provisional Council expected the general reform of the Horde's management to be implemented soon - therefore, questions about the settlement of underwater conscription continued to remain without movement.

However, in connection with the personal instructions made during the revision of State Councilor Kraft, the issue of ridding the Horde population of heavy underwater duty required revision. The Provisional Council began to face the need to introduce zemstvo fees when trying to introduce changes. According to the Council, without the establishment of zemstvo fees, the replacement of the existing underwater duty with monetary reform could not be implemented.

In the conclusion of the Ministry of Internal Affairs No. 12557 dated April 24, 1909, only the Kazanka–Talovka tract and the tract passing along the coastal coastal strip of the second district were recognized as priority tracts ^{[17, L.28]}. The first of them passed through the seniority of the Kamysh-Samara and Talovskaya units, and the second – through the seniority of the second Primorsky district. The rest of the seniority, which are part of the entire Horde, were not directly related to the specified tracts and the allocation of amounts for the equipment of these tracts; also, provisions on secular taxes could not be agreed, which could be levied only for the needs of the societies that were subject to taxation. In the light of the above and taking into account the final part of the proposal of the Ministry of Internal Affairs No. 11988 dated October 6, 1909, the Provisional Council informed the Ministry of Internal Affairs that it was impossible to organize travel routes in the Horde on the basis of data provided by the Ministry, taking into account local conditions ^{[18, l.33]}.

Conclusion

The inner (Bukeevskaya) Horde at the turn of the XIX – early XX century faced irreversible social, administrative and political transformations. The peculiarity of its position was the interaction with the Russian Empire and the Kazakh zhuzes. The adoption of Russian citizenship and intensive contacts contributed to overcoming patriarchal and tribal restrictions among Kazakhs and had a positive impact on their way of life and economy. Social relations among Kazakhs have also undergone changes, especially in relation to natural duties. If the process of liberation of the Kazakh population of the Horde from duties to protect Cossack property passed without obstacles, then the abolition of underwater duty has become a complex and significant task. The restructuring of the underwater service included the development of a system of public roads in various parts of the Horde and was only partially implemented. The Provisional Council also came to the conclusion that it was necessary to abolish the gopher duty.

As a result of the study, it can be concluded that the attempt of the Provisional Council to replace the natural underwater service with monetary fees agreed with the population was unsuccessful. The Council did not have sufficient financial resources to implement such a reform, as it had only limited funds for current expenses. In addition, the introduction of such fees, which were deemed unnecessary and ineffective during the audit by Kraft, depended on the consent of the population, which had the opportunity to change the purpose of the collected amounts.

Even if a part of the existing fees could be considered superfluous, it cannot be expected that all societies will agree to direct these fees to the needs of underwater service. The experience of the Provisional Council in 1908 showed that only a few societies agreed to allocate funds to replace underwater conscription with monetary reform. Even if the Provisional Council had managed to convince the population to keep the fees at the same level and change the purpose of some of them for reform, the amount that would have been allocated would most likely not have been of significant importance for a large-scale reform.

The scientific significance of this study lies in the primary analysis of the problem of replacing natural duties among the Kazakhs of the Inner Horde of the post-reform period. The results of the study, including Kraft's revision note, present new archival materials that contribute to the expansion of scientific horizons. These results revealed the need to revise the existing natural duties in the social life of the Kazakh population of the Inner Horde.