On the History of Religious Cults of Pisidia: rock votive reliefs

Pashkova Anastasiya Yur'evna ORCID: 0000-0002-8556-2162 Teacher of the Department of General Education Disciplines Belgorod State Agrarian University named V. Ya. Gorin 308503, Russia, Belgorod region, village Maysky, Vavilova str., 26, office 202 pashkova_ay@bsaa.edu.ru

Votive reliefs are an interesting monument to the religious life of Pisidia. In recent years, they have been found on numerous rocks in the highlands on the border of northern Lycia and southwestern Pisidia (Miliada), in cities and rural areas near Kibira ^{[10, p. 63]}.

These votives are dedicated to the local horseman god (9 in total), sometimes called Kakasb, and Dioscuri with a frontal female figure, possibly acting as a cult statue (xoanon) of the goddess (3 in total).

Although we may never be able to restore the ancient landscape and consider who the benefactors, customers or sculptors were — the authors of votive reliefs, an analysis and reconstruction should be undertaken to understand the place and role of these monuments in the religious life of the region.

Comparing these votives with other monuments (both carved from stone and depicted on specially placed steles), we will focus on several positions:

1) understanding the role of votive reliefs in the ancient world;

2) their location on the landscape;

3) relevance and importance as objects of worship.

Although this approach is aimed at further studying votive reliefs that were found in the Pisidia area, it is also important to note their close connection with similar samples that were found in northern Lycia, in the context of similar monuments of Hellenistic and Roman times. It should also be remembered about their cult significance and role in ritual practices.

Identification and study of rock votive reliefs, as well as images on steles found in southwestern Asia Minor (Pisidia), have been of interest to scientists for quite a long time. The first to be mentioned here are the travel reports and notes by George Bean.

Much attention was paid to sculptural images of gods, goddesses and heroes ^{[2; 3]}. Some of the presented divine figures are familiar from the Greek tradition, for example, the twin sons of Zeus, Dioscuri (Fig. 1), while others, such as the local horseman god Kakasb, or the twelve Lycian gods, are representatives of local Asia Minor cults ^{[23, p. 116]}.

Fig. 1. Relief of the Dioscuri and the goddess, armed figure, Kaltilar Intashi

Scientists who studied these images in the middle of the XIX century went far beyond the territory of Pisidia (Fig. 2), making comparisons with other regions.

Fig. 2. Map of the Pisidia research area

Today, any further analysis of rock or other votive reliefs from these regions of Asia Minor must necessarily take into account multiple publications of researchers in order to get a comprehensive picture of the object under study. The state of preservation of reliefs can be very poor, and the information that modern researchers possess may not be as complete as required.

There are also other studies of votive reliefs that have been linked to the work of scientists who studied ancient Lycia and Pisidia in a more general archaeological context. Between 1982 and 1996, 14 votive rock reliefs were published and identified in the Pisidian Survey, edited by Stephen Mitchell and Mark Welkens and supported by the British Institute of Archaeology in Ankara (BIAA).

A large group of rock reliefs, both carved and portable steles (75 in total), was collected during the BIAA project — the Balbura Study (1985-1994), which was conducted under the leadership of J. J. Coulton from the University of Oxford. Reliefs with inscriptions from Balbura were published by N.P. Milner, who was engaged in epigraphy ^{[24; 25]}.

Some of the other reliefs were also discovered and published by other archaeologists ^{[10, p. 14]}.

The available publications have significantly expanded our understanding of both portable and rock votive reliefs in various regions of southwestern Asia Minor.

The equestrian gods of Asia Minor are represented by a number of monuments derived from Lycia, Pisidia and Caria, and are concentrated on monuments of the Roman Empire period.

The building includes not only rock reliefs, but also steles, altars and statuettes. All, without exception, the objects under consideration are works of local creativity and are distinguished by the purely rural nature of their execution ^{[12, p. 1]}.

The Greek-Latin inscription, placed in the Archaeological Museum of Burdur in 2007, makes a significant contribution to the iconographic analysis of the studied monuments, as well as to understanding the place and role of Greek deities in Pisidia ^{[17, p. 4]}. Horsley's catalog also includes dedications to Dioscuri and various horseman gods.

Related to these publications are others dedicated to specific cult figures in connection with their connection with Hellenistic and Roman visual culture ^[25]. The main questions for analysis can be formulated as follows,

— are the reliefs in the immediate vicinity of tombs, graves or houses, springs, rivers or lakes?

— how are they located on the cardinal directions, in a group or singly?

— are there dedicatory inscriptions on the images? If so, is it possible to read them?

— what is the condition of the reliefs as a whole, are there individual parts on them that have been damaged or that have been modified?  

— are there any material evidence on the portable reliefs, about their original location?

Due to the fact that there is not enough information on all these issues, we can say that we do not yet have an exhaustive analysis of the place and role of these monuments.

A unique feature of the rock votive reliefs from Pisidia and neighboring regions is their connection with the landscape. Unlike various other structures carved into the rock of the tombs, the reliefs were carved directly into the rock. Despite the difficulties with their detection (and even moving) to date, these bas-reliefs have always been "in plain sight".

Their constancy in the landscape puts them in a special position from the point of view of historical memory ^{[8; 11]}. Terms such as "individual" and "collective" (or "social") memory, "inscribed" and "embodied" memory have been widely used by Western researchers of this range of problems ^[1], as well as archaeologists ^{[7; 18]}.

The finds of such monuments were carried out at different times in the same regions ^{[21; 15]}. In each individual case, the researchers faced difficulties that were associated with the inaccessibility of the passability of the places where the rock carvings were located.

The Pisidian Survey project, led by Lutgard Vandeput, claimed from the very beginning to be a generalizing study of the region. It focused on the comprehensive study of urban settlements ^{[10, p. 15]}.

At the same time, Balbura's research was the most extensive. It was aimed at studying one urban settlement and its adjacent territory.

Votive reliefs of Pisidia, studied by various scientists, as well as works in Balbur include rock and portable reliefs (steles). Some reliefs of the latter type were sent to museums ^{[17, p. 1]}, while other reliefs remained in place, as they were built into both public and private later buildings (Fig. 3).

Fig. 3. Relief of the god-rider (Kakasb?) built into the wall of a residential building, Chaltilar village

The discovery of votive reliefs under various circumstances inevitably leads to the fact that questions arise about how their different types are interconnected with each other.

The reliefs of Pisidia are the main component of the religious life of the local population. They are iconographic images intended for contemplation. Since the reliefs of a small selection from Pisidia are carved into the rocks, they cannot be transferred to museums. Therefore, they are "tied" to specific places. 

Rock carvings can be cult, or they can depict mythological events in a given area ^{[9; 14]}.

Further, a number of new questions arise: why are the monuments in this region made of local materials? ^{[18, c. 198]}. Why was this or that particular place chosen for them? Was it due to proximity to certain natural or artificial objects?

As we get more and more information about rock reliefs in Pisidia and other places in the Mediterranean, it becomes easier to analyze their possible creation process. The meaning of the cult images on the reliefs had to change over time, the old meanings were replaced by newer ones, namely pagan to Christian. The appearance of some reliefs was purposefully changed or damaged ^[27].

There are not as many similar images of the cult as one might assume. Examples from the Hellenistic sanctuary of Cybele in Sicily or a large number of reliefs of Artemis the Huntress above the theater in Philippi in northern Greece ^{[20, p. 55]} give obvious, though rare comparisons.  

At the same time, portable reliefs from these regions, such as the stele of the horseman god, perhaps a Cacasba built into the wall of a house in the village of Chaltelar ^{[25, p. 8]}, although they depict similar images, they have been preserved better. Finding this or that image in this or that place is evidence of the great role of cults in the life of their creators.

The rock reliefs found during the exploration of Pisidia are located on several sites. This suggests that a person in the past represented his past in material terms, through which rituals, actions, behavior, etc. were transmitted ^{[1; 6]}. Cultural memory can be defined as "the interaction of the present and the past in socio—cultural contexts" ^{[13, p. 2]}. Mythology, religious memory, the memory of generations and families - all this has an important role in the study of memory, and material objects are part of a broader context ^{[13, p. 7]}.

Rock reliefs from Pisidia and others found in the southwest of Asia Minor represent unusually rich archaeological evidence. They can (because of their immobility, location and content) affect such important aspects as myth, religion and kinship.

Considering the categories of social memory in connection with rock votives, one can understand that the reliefs are unique in some respects. By virtue of their function and our understanding of Hellenistic and Roman religious practices, reliefs embody ritual behavior in a material form.

The interaction of cult and memory acts as another look at the rock votive reliefs in Pisidia and shows how ancient religious rites were conducted in the past in this area.

The fact that some reliefs are grouped and may belong to more than one cult is of great importance. The appearance of small votive niches and recesses carved next to several equestrian gods in Kecili gives another hint of ritual rituals in rural areas ^{[12, p. 35]}.

Votive reliefs depicting the Dioscuri, the twin sons of Zeus Castor and Polydeucus, were discovered during the Pisidian expedition. The reliefs belong to traditional iconography, fully corresponding to the size and proportions of analogues that were found in northern Lycia, in the city of Balbura and its surroundings ^{[25, p. 32]}.

In all known examples, the twins are placed inside a rectangular panel where they sit on horseback and are dressed in military or travel clothing. They have conical pilos on their heads. Like horses, headdresses are common in such monuments. Steven Mitchell described the votives to the northwest of the village of Kecili. It was here that numerous settlements were previously located ^[24]. Most importantly, he described the position of the reliefs. The reliefs were carved in the lower part of the rock outcrops and faced either south or southeast. Another group of archaeologists recorded the presence of additional reliefs associated with other cults nearby ^{[12, p. 24]}.

Three reliefs from Kainar-Alani (near Kolbasa), one with Dioskur and the goddess, were found near a water source, and a relief of a horseman — near a lake. It is important to note that these reliefs were located outside the city ^{[23, p. 17]}. This does not mean that reliefs of that time and type have never been found in the city limits. There are examples from both Balbura and Oinoanda ^{[10, p. 150]}, or numerous votive dedications to Menu in his sanctuary in Pisidian Antioch.

The reliefs outside the cities were originally located near water sources (lakes and springs) and were facing south. Each of their details makes reference to a large body of rock reliefs from Balbura. There is a strong connection between them and each other, as well as with the religious life of the creators of the monuments ^{[15, p. 106]}. Due to the absence of extant inscriptions on each of these reliefs, it is impossible to determine exactly who created them, from which cities or districts the people who created the reliefs arrived. Whether they were local Pisidians or Solim, more distant Milians or Kabalis, is unknown ^{[10, p. 148]}.

Due to the fact that this group of reliefs is the most poorly preserved, it is impossible to compare their individual parts with other samples of reliefs that are better preserved.

Votive reliefs found in southwestern Asia Minor served as dedications. This is evidenced by the formula inscriptions accompanying some samples ^{[19, p. 4]}. Although there are no inscriptions preserved on some bas-reliefs (it is illegible on one relief), there is reason to believe, based on the similarity of their appearance, size, their location in the landscape and their cult figures, that they were votive dedications made by individuals to gods and heroes of local significance (Fig. 4).

The two types represented on the rock reliefs of Pisidia are well studied, and each of them has previously been attested in Pisidia and beyond.

The function of reliefs as religious objects and their importance as documents is particularly important ^[22].

Fig. 4. Relief of the horseman god, Kechili, carved in the rock

Gods, goddesses, and heroes can be depicted pouring out or accepting offerings, frying sacrificial meat, holding votive offerings, or honoring a cult statue. On the reliefs, the divine twins venerate the goddess, while they themselves simultaneously serve as objects of worship for mortal worshippers; the observation that they are "ambiguously located between gods and people" corresponds to their own cult character of demigods ^{[26, p. 133]}.

Interestingly, the same figure of the goddess accompanies an unnamed male Triad on several reliefs from Balbura and from Oinoanda. This further strengthens the idea that it is an object of local cult significance ^{[25, p. 15]}.

In fact, the only other city with a Triad cult in Pisidia was Termess. This is a Pisidian city that has known links with the Cybiriots ^{[10, p. 63]}. The reliefs of the god-rider from Pisidia are much worn out, but their general appearance is quite distinguishable. Each male figure on horseback dominates the space, being neatly carved into an almost square panel. The panel itself has an architectural form – it is a structure with a pointed roof or pediment. This feature is typical for such reliefs ^{[17, p. 4]}.

Despite the fact that they are not very well preserved, numerous evidences of the existence of this type of figures not only in Pisidia, but also in other places in the southwest of Asia Minor suggest that each rider holds a baton or some other weapon. In addition, a man and a horse were depicted in full face.

The figure was made in the same style. It was decorated with an inscription, which was interpreted as Kakasb. He acted as a local hero of Asia Minor, who can be associated with the Greek god Hercules, and was even sometimes designated by the name Hercules ^{[17, p. 262]}.

However, there are other gods-horsemen from the surrounding area, known by other names, among them Maseis, Sozon, Cuirass and Men. In the absence of an inscription accompanying the relief, it becomes almost impossible to correlate the name and the image. The standard iconography of an armed horseman was used to represent a number of local deities, even if artists or benefactors chose small variations of their appearance ^{[24, p. 141]}.

A recent study noted that "the geographical distribution of the reliefs suggests the presence of one deity who had the local name Kakasb, already attested in the IV century BC, and who survived in the area of Oinoanda-Balbura, while the Greek name (Hercules) is preferred in areas in the north and east" ^{[17, c. 188]}.

Like the reliefs of the Dioscuri (with or without a goddess), the horseman gods represent regional religious specifics. Among the attributes of the twins can be called the presence of a petas (a headdress with brims), characteristic of the ancient traveler ^{[16, p. 592]}.

A common addition to the reliefs of the Dioscuri from these regions, which can be seen on the sculptural reliefs from Sparta (the place of their birth), is a goddess standing between two horsemen. You can consider a draped female figure that is completely frontal. Sometimes she stands on a pedestal or inside a niche (on the wall), and sometimes a crescent moon is depicted above her head. All this may indicate that it is very likely that she is a cult statue ^{[16, p. 598]}.

In addition, the twins, although they are usually depicted in profile riding horses, also have faces that can be carefully examined.  In some cases, the horses look quite statuesque, as they unnaturally step towards the sculptural female figure in the center.

The identification of the goddess has occupied scientists for generations. Only on one relief it is called Artemis ^{[10, p. 147]}. Chapoutier in 1935 collected well-known evidence of twins with the goddess, grouping examples from the II century BC to the III century AD, obtained from various places, and interpreted the female figure as Elena ^{[16, p. 189]}. Other researchers claimed that this figure belonged to Artemis or a local goddess — Selene, Cybele or the Pisidian goddess, who was depicted on local coins ^{[10, p. 249]}.

The evidence shows that the Dioscuri were known and worshipped throughout Pisidia. Probably, their iconography has changed very little over a long period of time.

Thus, based on the study of rock votive reliefs, it can be concluded that the functions possessed by the cult and ritual practices of Roman Pisidia were directly related to the audience. These functions inevitably changed over time and could be interpreted differently by different people or even by the same people in different cases.