Ship Model as a Museum Object

Ovsiannikova Evgeniia Researcher, The Central Naval Museum named after Emperor Peter the Great 69A Bolshaya Morskaya str., Saint Petersburg, 190121, Russia 508199247@mail.ru

It is impossible to imagine a museum collection without museum objects. This is the basis, the basis of any museum. Models of ships and vessels are traditionally part of the collections of a large number of maritime museums, but can also be presented in museums whose collections are not thematically related to the sea. In a broad sense, a ship model is a subject of material culture. Many researchers define models as historical sources, objects of art, monuments of science and technology. However, following the definition, the model of the ship is its reduced copy. In this case, there is a dual attitude to such objects: on the one hand, as originals, primary sources, and on the other hand, as copies, reproductions, which is directly related to the selection criteria and the subsequent determination of the place and role of ship models in the museum collection. It is obvious that the urgent need to clarify the meaning of ship models in the museum should be considered through the prism of the theory of the museum object, with clarification of approaches to the definition of such objects and their terminological diversity.

While the concept of "museum object" is obvious, researchers have been considering it from different points of view for several decades, in the context of various cultural theories and paradigms. "For some, a museum object is the original and the primary source of knowledge, for others it is an object with a "set of museum value", for others it is an element of the historical process" ^[10]. "Foreign and domestic researchers define a museum object as one of the ways of transmitting socially significant information" ^{[13, p. 15]}.

Due to the polyphony of professional opinions about the museum object, its definition is interpreted in different ways in the sources. The legislative framework regulating museum activity in our country gives a very specific definition: "a museum object is a cultural value (cultural values are movable objects of the material world, regardless of the time of their creation, having historical, artistic, scientific or cultural significance), the quality or special features of which make it necessary for society to preserve, study and public presentation" ^[24]. Paying attention to the ability of such objects to be preserved over time, as well as their rarity, unusual, museologists endowed the museum object with new qualities. It is also a carrier of information, a source of a special kind of knowledge, an objective result of human activity. In the Dictionary of Current Museum Terms, a museum object is defined as "a movable object of cultural and natural heritage, the primary source of knowledge and emotions, removed from the environment of existence or museified together with a fragment of the environment and included in the museum collection" ^{[22, p. 56]}. A museum object has a specific set of characteristics, properties and functions (as A. A. Nikonova notes, "a museum object is prescribed characteristics and properties <...> that originally belong not so much to it as to any culturally significant artifact") ^{[15, p. 12]}.

It is well known that the main tasks of the museum's collecting work are determined by its profile ^{[17, p. 40]}. In the military-historical and ethnographic museums, in the museums of science and technology, a significant part of the collections are models of ships and vessels. Collections of ship models are the pride of many world museum collections (Naval Historical Museum in Venice, Royal Danish Naval Museum, National Maritime Museum in Paris, National Maritime Museum of Great Britain in Greenwich, Museum of the History of Navigation in Stockholm, Central Naval Museum named after Emperor Peter the Great in St. Petersburg, Shipping Museum in Amsterdam, the Naval Museum of Madrid,  The Maritime Museum of Barcelona, the Norwegian Maritime Museum in Oslo, the National Maritime Museum in Gdansk, the International Maritime Museum in Hamburg, the Maritime Museum in Lisbon, the Museum of the World Ocean in Kaliningrad, etc.). So, the primary foundation of the Naval Historical Museum in Venice was the Model House of the Venetian Arsenal, the Central Naval Museum – collection Model-cameras, the royal collection of ship models was the beginning of the Danish Royal Naval Museum, and similar collections collected by J. - B. Colbert, A. - L. Duhamel du Monceau and Louis XV - the National Maritime Museum in Paris.

From the point of view of museum science, ship models are considered as a subgroup of a large community of objects included in museum collections – models and models. At the same time, these two concepts are not separated in all works, but are considered synonymous and equivalent in relation to each other. Thus, in the Russian Museum Encyclopedia, only the definition of the term "layout" is given: "a three-dimensional reproduction of a three-dimensional original, made on a certain scale and allowing for some conditionality in the display" ^{[21, p. 344]}. In interdisciplinary dictionaries and reference books, a model is defined as a device reproducing the structure and action of a simulated device for scientific, industrial or sports purposes ^{[23, p. 817]}, and layouts are also used in architecture and printing.

In the professional literature devoted to various museum collections, which contain collections of reduced copies of ships and vessels (catalogs, articles, studies, monographs, essays), in most cases the term "model" is used. As noted in the Methodological Recommendations on the identification and ranking of monuments of science and technology ^[12], many technical museums have formed entire collections of models and layouts. Basically, this is a reproduction of large-sized objects and non-preserved originals that have played a significant role in the history of science and technology, which have a high information potential and are of museum value. In addition, it is indicated that the models conditionally and on a conditional scale reproduce the spatial or functional structure of the object, reveal the device and principle of operation of the technical object, fully or partially simulate the processes and hidden phenomena of the original. The layout, according to the authors of the Methodological Recommendations, is "a three-dimensional image of an object in conventional materials and in natural, reduced or enlarged scale" ^[12].

The cultural and scientific significance of models in the collections of science and technology museums was discussed in one of the issues of the journal Museum International ^[28], published by UNESCO. The authors of the articles note that museums show a natural interest in models, and museum models must meet strict technical, historical and aesthetic requirements. The issue also pays attention to the issue of terminology. Thus, all reduced copies of real objects that are preserved and exhibited in museums are divided into models, layouts and dioramas. The following definition of the term "model" is a representation in a concrete form of an object, phenomenon or concept designed to show the original in accordance with its purpose. In such a context, a layout is a geometrically correct, but most often a simplified representation of something that already exists or is supposed to be implemented, intended for direct use. A diorama is a realistic stage image consisting of a three–dimensional foreground and a colored background.

The question of the etymology and application of the term "model" to the objects of the collection is also of interest to modern curators of model collections. In particular, in the publication of the National Maritime Museum of Great Britain in Greenwich, dedicated to Admiralty models ^[27], the authors pay attention to the origin of the English word "model" from the French "modelle" and the Italian "modello" (model, template), which, in turn, originated from the Latin "modulus", which literally means a small measure or standard (standard, sample). 

It should be added that in some languages, layout and model are synonymous. A similar feature was noticed by the author in the Montenegrin Museum of Maritime Heritage in Tivat. Thus, the label for the model of the destroyer "Pula" in two languages – national and English – contains the following information: "Maketa razara?a Pula / Model of Pula destroyer". At the same time, the label for some other models in both cases uses the definition "model".

Comparing the terminological diversity, as well as using the research of the Polytechnic Museum in Moscow to identify and rank models and models as monuments of science and technology, a ship model can be defined as a material object demonstrating certain properties (a set of properties) of the object under study (ship). At the same time, it is a device that reproduces, simulates the structure and action of a "simulated" object (ship), which is created for scientific, industrial or sports purposes, as well as for the purpose of studying objects that are difficult to access (have not been preserved, do not exist), and can be a model for mass production of a product. At the same time, the model is never completely identical to the real object, but is specially created in order to reproduce the characteristics of the object being studied, serves to store and expand knowledge (information) about it, construct the original, transform or manage it. Building (creating) models is modeling.

The museum is created on the basis of authentic monuments, without which it is impossible to imagine either a stock collection or an exposition, and collecting such items is a priority task for the museum. In this case, several reasonable questions arise: is the ship model a genuine monument in itself or just a reduced copy of the original object? Is the model a "full-fledged" museum item? Is it possible to call such items fully museum-like? What is a model of a ship before being included in the museum collection: only a reproduction of the original (ship or vessel) or a full-fledged object of history, science and culture, possessing historical value and authenticity, which, being selected into the museum collection, is endowed with all the properties and functions of a museum object?

Models, according to E. A. Shulepova, appeared in our country since the beginning of the museum business ^{[18, p. 51]}. Without detracting from the value of ship models made, in particular, for the Admiralty model camera and being "full-fledged museum objects", the models belong to the author's group of reproductions of museum objects, which are created when the museum has no opportunity to present an authentic object (except models, among the things of interest to us in this category are also layouts). Many authors give a similar assessment to models (in general, models included in museum collections). Thus, I. V. Andreeva ^{[1, p. 13]} draws attention to the fact that models and models are considered by a number of specialists in relation to paintings, naturals and antiquities as secondary documents that are assigned an educational role.

In the materials of the Polytechnic Museum dedicated to the monuments of science and technology, it is determined that along with authentic clothing sources, there are reproductions of them, which, unlike the original sources (originals), are created to transmit information about them. Among such reproductions, copies, models, mockups, and dummies are distinguished. It is worth noting that many authors, without denying the high informational potential and museum value of the models, but speaking about their secondary role in relation to the original – a ship or a vessel – do not take into account the fact that in many cases the model appeared before the ship: first, a model was made, and then a ship, or simultaneously with it. In other situations, if the project remained unfulfilled, the original was not created at all. Such models of unbuilt ships are of great value for history and science.

Peter van Mensch clarifies that some researchers refer models to secondary museum material, which is not a category of museum objects, does not have "documentary value" and only complements the exposition ^{[11, p. 223]}. The author himself believes that one should not underestimate the importance of such materials "as documents related to the development of scientific theories or the museum business itself" ^{[11, p. 224]}, and considers all objects as a source of information.

The question whether the model can in principle be a museum monument is considered in the article by L. S. Lavrentieva ^[4] (on the example of ethnographic collections). As the author notes, in the ethnographic museum, models were given great importance, they were included in the programs for collecting ethnographic information (in particular, this was provided for by the collection program of the ethnographic department of the Russian Museum of Emperor Alexander III) and "were initially considered museum-level exhibits" ^{[4, p. 60]}.

The probability of including copies as parity in the collection of unique items was formed at a fairly early stage of the development of collecting ^{[15, p. 17]}. To a certain extent, the ship model is a copy of the original object, but the model itself contains a significant amount of data not only about the swimming vehicle that it depicts, but also in many cases about shipbuilding, cultural and ritual practices, about art, about folk traditions. In addition, it was simply not possible to preserve such a volume of originals – ships and vessels – within the framework of the movement of the historical process. Natural loss due to obsolescence, damage and destruction during hostilities, as well as flooding, rebuilding and other objective reasons do not allow, in principle, to preserve such a volume of originals in relation to their copies – models. On the contrary, the latter were created and are being created in many ways in order to preserve the entire complex of information for future generations. The relevance of making ship models as some kind of additional exposition material also exists, but in most cases the value and rarity of the items themselves  it doesn't detract.  Creating a model is a laborious process, and, as a rule, the replication of such items is impractical (with the development of modern technologies, for example, 3D printing, there is the possibility of mass production, but in this case the museum value of such an item will be significantly reduced).

The models of ships that make up the collections of museums (historical, artistic, ethnographic), of course, are different in their origin, level of execution. As you know, once in a museum, the object loses its utilitarian function. To the full extent, this loss of functional significance can be compared with ritual or votive models of ships. Such objects, although they represented abstract or concrete vessels, were mainly not made in order to capture the appearance of the ship or to memorize its design. On the contrary, the demonstration models in the museum do not fully lose their functionality. Despite this fact, it is safe to say that the models are independent museum objects and have a set of specific properties that determine their scientific, historical and aesthetic value.

One of the first characteristic properties of museum objects in relation to ship models is informative. Are ship models capable of being a source of information about historical events, cultural phenomena? For example, of particular historical interest are the so-called half models, which were made by shipwrights themselves for the practical purpose of showing or working out the proportions, the theory of the ship, and checking the contours of the ship in practice ^{[3, p.76]}. If the model is made to scale, then due to its size, it is possible to calculate the proportions and dimensions of a real ship. It is often thanks to models, in the absence or insufficiency of other sources, it is possible to find out what an object looked like, determine its design features and other criteria. The models carry important information on the history of navigation and the development of shipbuilding at one stage or another. They can be used to study ship architecture and decor, the design of ships, their equipment. The events in which models and related persons (builders, customers, owners, designers, etc.) were created represent inexhaustible material for the researcher. The history of origin and existence is another important property of the information potential of the subject. In particular, the models found during excavations of settlements and ancient Egyptian tombs are a reliable source on the history of shipping and ritual (cult) practices and beliefs. The model is often not just a source, it is the primary source of knowledge about any event or phenomenon of history and culture. If we consider ship models from the point of view of representativeness, then, for example, out of more than two and a half thousand models from the CVMM collection, there are only a few examples of absolutely identical items. Models can have a single author's style (but not the same type), material, even represent the same ship, but in most cases they are made in a single copy. For most models stored in museum collections, replication is uncharacteristic.  

Do the ship models make a direct impression, do they affect the emotional sphere of the museum visitor, in other words, do they have the properties of attractiveness and expressiveness? Researchers of English Admiralty models note that these objects can be considered one of the greatest works of fine art. These models are distinguished not only by the accuracy of proportions and design features, but also by fine workmanship, skillful carving, abundance of decor, filigree elaboration of the smallest details, elegance of lines. Such items showed the maritime power of the state, and their manufacture could take several years, and the work of craftsmen of different profiles (shipbuilders, carpenters, carvers, gilders). The predominance of decorative features emphasized the status of such models in order to demonstrate prestige. Rare woods, thin veneer, gilding, ivory were used in the decoration. All these properties are really related to such models, which do not leave the audience indifferent, with objects of art. In the collection of ship models of the Central Naval Museum there is a unique collection made of tortoiseshell. These models were made by the masters of the Japanese workshop of Emiro Ezaki from Nagasaki ^{[20, p. 130]}. In addition, speaking about expressiveness and attractiveness, we can give an example of models made on a scale of 1:12. Such large-scale models are very rare in foreign maritime museums. From 1852 to 1865, nine models were made in the modeling workshops of St. Petersburg on a scale of 1:12, of which eight were preserved ^{[6, p. 10]}. These items always find a lively response from visitors of TsVMM of different ages. The advantage of such models is in their clarity, enlarged details for the possibility of an effective study of the ship's structure. The property of expressiveness is most possessed by unique and memorial objects, relics ^{[18, p. 39]}, which fully applies to the lion's share of ship models.

Another property of ship models is their associativity, because they are extremely figurative objects. The romance of the sea, sea battles and adventures, travel, ports and harbors, the ocean element, famous figures of the fleet, the age of sailboats, maritime professions, marine studies – not a complete list of associations that may be associated with these subjects.

From the point of view of the social functions of museum objects, ship models have the most pronounced scientific and cognitive function (model as an object of scientific knowledge), modeling function (model as a fragment of historical reality) and cultural function (model in the system of cultural values of society). In other words, the model can be considered as an object of research comprehension, as a part of culture, as an element of an artificially recreated cultural and historical environment. In this case, what are the ship models monuments of? There is a need to consider ship models from the point of view of their species correspondence, which is projected onto all stock collections of state museums of our country according to the "Information on the operation of Museums" (form 8-NC), the same principle is laid down in the formation of the State Catalog of the Museum Fund of the Russian Federation.

Of all the species categories available in the form of 8-NC, models can be attributed to the subjects of technology, applied art, everyday life and ethnography, and to archeology. The first group is the most obvious. Monuments of science and technology are material objects that are a special part of cultural and historical monuments, somehow related to the process of development of science and technology, having scientific, social and other significance ^{[2, p. 7]}. Models of ships and vessels not only as reduced copies of original objects, but also in themselves relate to the history of transport development (as a classification part of technology) and science. It is known that modeling has accompanied shipbuilding since ancient times. Even primitive models surpass any drawing in clarity, because they can be used to judge the contours and design of the oldest vessel ^{[7, p. 77]}. It is safe to say that ship models carry a large amount of information on the invention and development of various technical devices (not only the ships themselves, but also the elements of their equipment). So, the half-models that were to be handed over to the Model Chamber at the Main Admiralty carried shipbuilding information and had to preserve it for the next generations of shipbuilders. The vast majority of them were used along with the drawings ^{[7, p. 80]}. The Admiralty models already mentioned, built by the shipbuilder himself or under his strict control, conveyed the exact proportions of the ship and its design features and were supposed to be a model for the construction of the original. In most cases, the correlation of models of ships and vessels to the subjects of the history of technology is considered as an established fact. In particular, in the section "Collections. The History of Technology" of the website of the Museum of the Navy in Moscow emphasizes that "the museum's funds are widely represented by objects that reflect various stages in the development of the history of science and technology of shipbuilding. The collection includes unique models of ships and ships made in mock-up workshops of shipyards, which can be used to trace the evolution of shipbuilding since the beginning of the XIX century, as well as to obtain information about the technical characteristics of ships" ^[14]. M. V. Shleeva, in her works devoted to monuments of science and technology, pays attention to models, among other things. Thus, in the article "Preservation of monuments of science and technology in military Historical Museums (XVIII - XIX)" ^[26] the author repeatedly mentions model collections in the context of preserving samples of ship craftsmanship in the Admiralty Model Chamber founded by Peter the Great, concluding that various museum collections preserving monuments of military and naval equipment, "they became the initiators of the movement to preserve the monuments of science and technology in our country" ^{[26, p. 501]}.

Researchers of ship models also consider them as works of decorative and applied art. For example, experts on pontoon models note that their creation is a real artistic craft ^{[16, p. 19]}. Such models have detailed detailing, stylistic unity of artful decor. Many of their creators – captured French sailors, in the past were engravers, stone carvers, jewelers, sculptors, ivory carvers, watchmakers. The authors emphasize that "the ship models are flawlessly executed both from a technical and aesthetic point of view" ^{[19, p. 16]}, using valuable wood, ivory, steel. The details of the decor and marine equipment are worked out with jewelry. It should be added that during certain periods great attention was paid to the ship's decor. In particular, in the XVIII century. it was dominated by the features of the Baroque, in the first half of the XIX century. – classicism. In the second half of the XIX century in Russia such masters of sculpture as P. K. Klodt, M. A. Chizhov, P. S. Pimenov, M. O. Mikeshin collaborated with the Maritime Ministry ^{[25, p. 81]}. Accordingly, to create an authentic model, the creators needed enough skills to accurately reproduce the bow figure and other elements of ship decorations. For example, describing the model of the 88-gun ship "Saint Andrew" from the collection of TSVMM, A. L. Larionov highly appreciates the artistic carving of the model's decor, finely executed bow decoration and other details. According to the author, "the model is not only shipbuilding, but also of great artistic value as a work of applied art" ^{[8, p. 69]}. In his other work, Larionov considers professional ship modeling as one of the types of applied art, arguing that when creating an artistic model, the compositional unity of materials, techniques and means of artistic expression is implied, as in works of applied art ^{[5, p. 51]}.

Ship models are a valuable ethnographic source. The Peter the Great Museum of Anthropology and Ethnography of the Russian Academy of Sciences has a large collection of such items. For example, models of Aleutian kayaks complement the subject range of full-size boats: they give an idea of the hunter's equipment, his clothes ^{[9, p. 231]}. In addition, the details of such models indicate the significant artistic capabilities of their authors – the Aleut – in the field of miniature sculpture made of wood and bone. Such models are distinguished not only by the thoroughness of the details, but also by the accuracy of the transmission of the nuances of the design, the contours of the body and the original material. It is not uncommon to find models of boats and ships during excavations, on the site of tombs and burial sites. These are, for example, models of boats from excavations in Egypt, Crete.

Thus, ship models are monuments of science and technology, objects of decorative and applied art, objects of ethnography and archeology, while one or another group of models contains features of one or two others. The text has already mentioned such groups of models as semi-models, pontoon, admiralty models and some others, but this refers to the classification groups of ship models and requires a separate study.

Models of ships and vessels in the collections of museums are not secondary to other material sources. They fully correspond to the concept of "cultural values", and, being the primary sources of knowledge and emotions, belong to the monuments of history, science and culture, have historical value and authenticity, are endowed with all the properties and functions of a museum object.