The influence of the Olympic Games on the formation of the image of Russia

Zeleneva Irina Vladimirovna ORCID: 0000-0001-5314-5658 Professor, Department of World Politics, Faculty of International Relations, St. Petersburg State University 191060, Russia, Saint Petersburg, Smolny str., 1/3, 8 entrance irina_zeleneva@mail.ru

Terekhov Mikhail Sergeevich ORCID: 0000-0001-6109-7756 Student, Department of World Politics, Faculty of International Relations, St. Petersburg State University 191060, Russia, Saint Petersburg, Smolny str., 1/3, 8 entrance mikhail.terekhov01@mail.ru

IntroductionThis article is devoted to the influence of the Olympic Games on the foreign policy image of the Russian Federation.

The construction of a positive foreign policy image of the state is a key element of soft power.

Modern science pays great attention to the problems of foreign policy image. The process of forming the foreign policy image of the state was studied by: Galumov, E. A.^[1], Glazatov A.V.^[2], Gorodnina O. S.^[3], Dvornikova E. K.^[3], Sagalaeva S. S.^[4], Boulding K.^[5], Mercer J.^[6], Morris C.^[5] The influence of the Olympic Games on the formation of the country's image was analyzed in the works of Akameeva A. A.^[7], Voinova D. E.^[8] and Martynenko S. E.^[9]

The article will consider three main stages of Russia's participation in the Olympic Games from 1994 to 2022, which influenced the foreign policy image. We identified 1994-2012 as the first stage. The chronological framework of this period is explained by the fact that 1994 was the year of the first Olympics in which our athletes took part under the flag of the Russian Federation, and 2012 was the Olympic Games in London, which were the last before the Olympics in Sochi. The second stage is entirely devoted to the Sochi Olympics in 2014, which deserves separate consideration. And finally, the third stage lasted from 2016 to 2022. We will designate it as the "post-Sochi" stage, which includes all the Olympic Games since 2016. Throughout this stage, Russian athletes have been plagued by various doping scandals.

The impact of the Olympic Games on the image of Russia from 1994 to 2012.The first Olympic Games in which our athletes competed under the flag of the Russian Federation were the XVII Winter Olympic Games in Lillehammer (Norway, 1994).

By that time, all former Soviet republics, including Russia, had become sovereign members of the International Olympic Committee (IOC). 113 athletes competed for the Russian Olympic team, and it became the second largest at these Games after the United States^[10].

Before this Olympics, many sports experts were pessimistic about Russia's prospects, explaining this by the recent complete collapse of the state sports system, which ensured success at the Olympic Games for the USSR teams. But Russian athletes proved the groundlessness of such predictions by taking first place in the unofficial team competition and winning 11 gold, 8 silver and 4 bronze medals^[11].

The table shows the results of the Russian Olympic team in the unofficial team competition:

It can be said that the Russian Olympic team in the period from 1994 to 2012 consistently showed high sporting results, not falling below 5th place in the unofficial team standings, with the exception of the failure in Vancouver in 2010, where our team took only 11th place.Such achievements of Russian athletes had a positive impact on the image of the country, creating the image of a strong sports power.

Another tool that Russia has actively used to promote its image is the organization of the "Russian House" in Olympic Parks. Initially, the main purpose of such facilities was to provide their athletes with a place where they could gather, as well as celebrate their successes. But then they began to leave a space in the "Russian Houses" where everyone could get acquainted with the culture of our Homeland.

For example, the first "Russian House" was created at the 1992 Summer Olympics in Barcelona (Spain). But then his activities were practically not covered in the press. At the 1994 Winter Olympics in Lillehammer (Norway), the "Russian House" was made exclusively for the recreation of Russian athletes. Since the 1996 Summer Olympics in Atlanta (USA), the "Russian House" has acquired its modern format and has become a "house of hospitality". It began to host meetings of athletes with journalists, fans and others. The "Russian House" began to hold events dedicated to Russian culture, traditions, cuisine^[12].

The most famous was the "Russian House", organized at the 2010 Winter Olympics in Vancouver (Canada). He occupied a building in the Mir Nauki community center. The "Russian House" consisted of concert and banquet halls, as well as an open area. His main activity was related to informing guests about the upcoming 2014 Winter Games in Sochi. The work of the "Russian House" began with the Sochi – Vancouver teleconference, during which at that time the Chairman of the Government of the Russian Federation, Vladimir Putin, talked with the Olympians who were in Canada. The total area of the "Russian House" was about 10 thousand square meters, it was visited by over 100 thousand guests^[12].

Olympic Games – 2014 in SochiThe Olympic Games in Sochi, held in 2014, significantly influenced the formation of a positive image of Russia, so they deserve a separate study.

This Olympiad was the first in the history of modern Russia, which our country hosted. The decision that the XXII Winter Olympic Games will be held in Sochi was made at the 119th session of the IOC held in Guatemala on July 4, 2007.

Of particular political importance to these Games was the fact that President of the Russian Federation Vladimir Putin met with IOC members on the eve of the decision on the host country in order to personally support Russia's bid to host the 2014 Winter Olympic Games in Sochi. This was the first such case when the president of a country that applied to host the Olympic Games met with members of the IOC. This caused a political outcry, as the IOC said that the Russian president had made a decisive contribution to the success of the Russian bid. Of course, Vladimir Putin's personal presence was not the only factor in choosing Sochi as the capital of the Games. Other factors were the unusual location (since Sochi is located in a subtropical zone) and the achievements of Russian athletes in winter sports. In general, domestic and foreign experts unanimously concluded that Vladimir Putin saw the Olympic Games as an opportunity to demonstrate the importance of Russia's role in both international and domestic contexts^[7].

From the very beginning, the Olympic Games in Sochi were considered in Russia as one of the most ambitious projects that were designed to form a positive image of the country in the international arena after the collapse of the USSR. In such a situation, the sharp actualization in foreign media of a certain range of subjects (not always of a political nature) at the final stages of the preparation of the Games turned out to be especially significant: human rights, V. V. Putin's personal image, terrorism and security issues. Moreover, it is worth noting that these topics were also discussed at the level of top officials of states, and not only among the large audience of the Internet^[8]. Initially, the set tone in the media space was determined not by the Russian side, but by the Western press.

This played a key role in leveling the "soft power" of Russia, through which our country tried to form a positive image. However, it is impossible not to note that some foreign media wrote more positively about the 2014 Games, but their materials were rather an exception in the current situation and could not change the initially created negative flow of information. The holding of the Olympic Games themselves showed that the media image created in advance by the international media was false. But the main task of the Sochi Games – creating a favorable image of Russia abroad – was not fully achieved. Despite the fact that the emotional coloring of the materials in the media has changed for the better, we can only talk about softening criticism of Russia. The Ukrainian crisis of 2014 had its external negative impact on the image of Russia^[8]. However, during the Olympics, the attitude towards Russia in the world has changed. In the articles of foreign media, interviews of athletes and journalists, positive assessments of the organization and holding of the Olympics, the hospitality of our country appeared^[9].

The 2014 Olympic Games changed the image of the state: people from different countries learned more about Russia, its culture and peoples. The well-being of the region where the Games were held, the conditions that were created for the event, influenced the investment attractiveness of the Krasnodar Territory and the country as a whole, as well as the development of tourism. The Fisht Stadium, the small ice arena "Puck", the ice palace "Bolshoy", the Ice Cube Arena, the Iceberg Ice Palace, etc. were built in Sochi. In Krasnaya Polyana, located high in the mountains, the sports facilities Rosa Khutor, Sledge, Laura and Russian Slides were opened. All of them are still actively involved in various events.

The holding of the XXII Winter Olympic Games in Sochi in 2014 played a big role in familiarizing foreign audiences with the culture of Russia. In preparation for the Olympics, a unique project called the Sochi 2014 Cultural Olympiad was implemented. From 2010 to 2014, all the best that is in Russian culture was selected. During this time, a huge number of events dedicated to Russian culture were held in all regions of the country. The year 2010, as part of the Cultural Olympiad, was dedicated to cinema, 2011 – theater, 2012 – music, 2013 – museums. As a result, all the best that was collected during the implementation of this project was presented in the cultural program of the Winter Olympic Games in Sochi. At the same time, most of the exhibitions and events of the cultural program of the Olympiad were free of charge. Thus, during the Olympiad, foreign tourists were able to show not only the culture of a particular region in which the Olympiad was held, but also all the best that is in the cultures of all regions of multinational Russia. In total, more than 1 million tourists visited the Olympic Games in Sochi^[13].

Another way to attract attention to the culture of Russia in the framework of the Olympic Games were the opening and closing ceremonies, which were broadcast around the world and allowed a huge audience to get acquainted with the culture of our country. The opening ceremony of the Sochi Olympics clearly showed what kind of image Russia wanted to present to the world, increased the attractiveness of our country in the international arena. The emphasis was placed on the contribution our country has made to world culture. This was quite justified, since Russian writers, poets, dancers, composers and musicians have always had extremely wide international recognition^[7]. Many European publications wrote that the opening and closing ceremonies were something grandiose^[8].

Russian athletes took first place in the unofficial team competition, which meant the triumph of Russian sports.

The impact of the Olympic Games on the image of Russia from 2016 to 2022.The period designated by us as "post–Sochi" includes all the Olympic Games that took place after the 2014 Olympics in Sochi, namely: the XXXI Summer Olympic Games 2016 in Rio de Janeiro, the XXIII Winter Olympic Games 2018 in Pyeongchang, the XXXII Summer Olympic Games 2020 in Tokyo and the XXIV Winter Olympic Games – 2022 in Beijing.

To begin with , let's look at the results of Russian athletes at the above-mentioned Olympiads:

From this table, we can conclude that Russian athletes continue to remain in the top five at the Summer Olympics, but there has been a significant failure at the Winter Olympics over the past two Olympics. However, this table does not take into account one extremely significant factor affecting the results of our athletes. This factor is the various doping scandals involving Russian athletes, which began with the 2016 Olympics in Rio de Janeiro.

Initially, it was planned that 387 athletes would represent Russia at the Olympic Games in Rio de Janeiro. But because of the doping scandal that first arose around the All-Russian Athletics Federation, and then spread to the alleged system of substitution of doping samples at the 2014 Olympic Games in Sochi, only 286 athletes represented our country. Of those athletes who could not take part because of the doping scandal, there were many contenders for medals. The basis for this doping scandal was the so-called "McLaren report", dedicated to the alleged abuse of doping in Russian Olympic sports^[14].

On December 5, 2017, the Russian Olympic Committee was suspended from participating in the 2018 Olympics in Pyeongchang, according to the IOC decision. Russian athletes were able to participate in the Olympic Games on an individual basis and under a neutral flag^[15]. Those athletes who were admitted took part under the title "Olympic Athlete from Russia". During the award ceremonies in which our athletes took part, the Olympic anthem was played in their honor. This was the first suspension of the country for doping in the history of the Olympic Games. Such selective admission of our athletes was the reason for the low result in the unofficial team competition.

After the end of the 2018 Olympics, the IOC restored the membership of the Russian Olympic Committee^[16]. Nevertheless, on December 9, 2019, the decision of the International Anti-Doping Agency (WADA) was made^[17] that Russian athletes will not be able to perform under the flag and anthem of Russia until December 16, 2022. On December 18, 2020, a similar decision was made by the Court of Arbitration for Sport (CAC)^[18]. After such decisions of the above–mentioned instances, the IOC decided that Russian athletes will compete at the 2020 Olympic Games in Tokyo as part of the Russian Olympic Committee team^[19]. However, all restrictions on the participation of our athletes have been lifted.

Speaking about the 2022 Olympic Games in Beijing, we can say that information about Russia prevailed in the information field after the Olympics in the context of the situation in Ukraine in February 2022. At the Olympics itself, our athletes again performed as members of the Russian Olympic Committee team.

We can say with full confidence that all the scandals related to doping have had a negative impact on the image of our country. It is also worth noting that from 2016 to 2022, the Russian national team did not take higher than 4th place in the unofficial medal standings, which, although associated with various sanctions against Russian athletes, has a negative impact on the image of Russia as one of the largest sports powers in the world.

At the last third stage of our country's participation in the Olympic movement, the "Russian House" was only at the 2016 Olympics in Rio de Janeiro as a tool for forming a positive image of Russia to familiarize with the national culture. More than 15 thousand people from about 60 countries visited it during those Olympic Games^[20].

There was no "Russian House" at the 2018 Winter Olympics in Pyeongchang, the 2020 Summer Olympics in Tokyo and the 2022 Winter Olympics in Beijing. And if the absence of a "Russian House" in Pyeongchang was explained by the restriction on alternative award ceremonies^[21], then in the case of the Games in Tokyo and Beijing, the main obstacle was the COVID-19 pandemic.

ConclusionAs a result of the conducted research, it can be concluded that in the period from 1994 to 2012, the participation of Russian athletes in the Olympic Games was quite successful.

Russian athletes consistently showed high results, sometimes even contrary to expectations. The large-scale activity in the Olympic Park was conducted by the "Russian House", which actively introduced foreign guests to the culture of Russia. There were no major mass doping scandals with Russian athletes. The 2014 Olympic Games in Sochi were held at the highest level, Russian athletes took first place in the unofficial team competition. The Sochi 2014 Cultural Olympiad, as well as the opening and closing ceremonies deserve special mention in the context of creating a positive image of Russia in the eyes of a foreign audience. However, negative materials in foreign media before the Olympics and the 2014 Ukrainian crisis had a negative impact on Russia's image. Nevertheless, our country managed to introduce its culture to the foreign public. After the Sochi Olympics, Russian athletes continue to be in the top five at the Summer Olympics, but there has been a significant failure at the Winter Olympics over the past two Olympics. This failure is explained by various doping scandals involving Russian athletes, which began with the 2016 Olympics in Rio de Janeiro. All the scandals related to doping have had a negative impact on the image of our country. The last time the "Russian House" was present at the 2016 Olympics in Rio de Janeiro, which further deprived Russia of a useful tool for familiarizing the foreign public with its culture. All these negative factors after the 2014 Olympics partially offset the successes that were achieved at the previous stages.

Summing up, we can say that the Olympic Games from 1994 to 2012 and the Sochi 2014 Olympics, which we refer to the first two stages, had a steady positive effect on Russia's image, but the negative factors that have arisen since 2016 partially offset the successes achieved in this direction in previous years. It can be argued that during the period from 1994 to 2014, it was possible to form a number of tools through which, within the framework of the Olympic Games, it is possible to have a positive impact on the image of Russia. These include the success of athletes, the holding of the Olympic Games, the organization of the "Russian House" in Olympic parks. However, due to the current geopolitical situation, the holding of another Olympic Games in Russia is not expected in the foreseeable future. The further participation of our athletes in international competitions is also in question. Therefore, at the moment, the best option is to focus on the development of sports within the country in order to influence the image of Russia through the success of athletes, when the situation in the world stabilizes, and our athletes will once again become full participants in the Olympic movement. A number of programs and projects aimed at the development of sports are already being carried out in Russia. These include the Federal project "Sport is the norm of life", the state program "Development of Physical Culture and Sports", the national projects "Demography" and "Housing and urban Environment". Mass physical culture events are also held in Russia, such as "Ski Track of Russia", "Cross of the Nation", children's hockey and football tournaments "Golden Puck" and "Leather Ball", competitions for novice athletes, chess players and skaters "Shipovka Yunykh", "White Rook", "Silver Skates". Also, to create a positive image of Russia, it is important to revive the practice of creating a "Russian House" in Olympic parks.