Eastern and Western Dragons. Characteristics of Image Perception and Interpretation

Stalinskaya Ekaterina Pavlovna ORCID: 0000-0001-7692-7804 PhD in Art History Associate Professor, Art History Department, Saint Petersburg Stieglitz State Academy of Art and Design 191187, Russia, g. Saint Petersburg, ul. Solyanoi Per., 13 estalinskaya@yandex.ru Other publications by this author

The problem of East-West culture and art is constantly relevant for scientists studying their difference and mutual influence. An interesting object for such research is the image of a Dragon – a fantastic creature significant in different cultures of the East and West.

         The image of a fantastic Dragon–creature appeared in the ancient, since Neolithic times, history of China, filling the cultural space of the country for several millennia. He is not a god, not a deity, but a Spirit. His image is formulated in ancient Chinese mythology, is everywhere fixed in images and in decorative and applied art. And this is not accidental.

         The fictional image of the Dragon has been endowed with vital functions since ancient times and has become a symbol of faith and worship, associated with people's hopes for protection and help. In ancient times, many disparate tribes lived on the territory of China. Their survival depended entirely on natural and climatic conditions, on the quality of the land, on water, on fauna and flora. Faith in the powers of Heaven and Earth encouraged people to seek intermediaries in communicating with them. Often, local animals with special survival abilities were identified as such intermediaries: birds, snakes, wolves, foxes, owls, wild boars, bears and others. Migration of nomadic tribes, wars, clashes or associations led to the formation of new communities of people. They brought their life experiences and beliefs into the new community. There are no analogues to the Dragon in reality, and there were no analogues, and, as many scientists believe, variants of this complex, fictional image were formed by merging different tribal totems – creatures or objects that served as objects of worship and faith.

         It is not surprising that initially the image of the Dragon (called in China – the Moon) was formed into a single whole from different parts of the bodies of different animals. There are many variants of such a symbiosis: then with the head of a crocodile, then a boar or a camel, and the body was depicted as a snake, then crocodile, then bird, then fish; then legless, then bipedal, or with four legs; then winged, then wingless, then with a pointed, then with a forked tail, then with with a brush tail, etc.

         The origin and development of the image of the Moon took place on the territory of Central China in the area of settlement of the Huaxia tribe – the ancestors of modern Chinese, who are now proud of their kinship with him.

         The dragon, being a fictional creature and unrelated to the analogues existing in nature, gradually transformed, constantly adapted and mimicked.

         The canonical rules for the image of a dragon in the middle of the first millennium were quite flexible, diverse, but so formed that they made it possible to easily determine its image. According to one description, the dragon was distinguished by the following features: the body of a snake covered with scales, paws resembling tiger, eagle sharp claws, large rabbit eyes, bird wings, cow ears and long cord-like whiskers. According to other legends, he was endowed with the head of a camel, the whiskers of a hare, the eyes of a bull, the neck of a snake, the belly of a lizard, the scales of a carp, the claws of an eagle, the paws of a tiger and the tail of a snake" [2. p.141].

         For a long time, the functions, duties, abilities, qualities, and appearance attributed to him have changed. Other dragons appeared, their number increased, local peculiarities were determined.

         Like the human community, there was its own social hierarchy among the dragons, where Wang Lung, the "Heavenly Lord", the "King of all Beasts", became the main one. He was the biggest, the oldest in age and influence. As a result, as a result of centuries-old evolution, he acquired a stable image of a winged, snake-like, majestic creature symbolizing strength, courage and wisdom. It has become a symbol of fertility and well-being, so important in the peasant life of the people of an agricultural country.

         In ancient Chinese mythology, the Dragon was not the only zoomorphic fantasy creature, but the most popular. Great magical power was also possessed by: the Phoenix bird (Fenghuang) – eternally living, constantly reborn after death – a symbol of humanity; the Tiger or Unicorn (Qilin) – giving a happy life; the Sacred Turtle (Lingui) – a symbol of immortality and opposition to evil forces.

         M.E. Kravtsova, in a grandiose scientific work devoted to the history of Chinese art, wrote about the significance of these images on the example of the decoration of ancient bronze objects of the Yin epoch (XIV – XI centuries): "The abundance of zoomorphic and zoo-fantasy motifs and images not only enhances the aesthetic expressiveness of Yin bronzes, but gives them an aura of mystery, emphasizing their proximity to the higher, sacred world, which fully corresponds to the position of the Yin kings and nobles as spiritual hierarchs." ^{[5, p. 132]}

         In ancient Chinese mythology, it is told about the nine sons of Wang Lung, who shared functions and responsibilities: Yang-Ji - mysterious and brave, he was depicted on weapons, warriors addressed him; Chi–Wen - sharp-sighted, he was placed on the roof skates, hoping to be warned in moments of impending danger; Ba-Qi (Ba-Xia) – the lord of the water elements, he was depicted on water vessels, on the supports of bridges across the river, hoping for protection from floods; Zhao-Feng – scents and frightens evil spirits, keeps silence, he is depicted on door handles with a ring in his mouth or placed in corners and on the threshold of the dwelling; Pu-Liao is a loud–voiced messenger, he was depicted on gongs and bells; Swan-Mi is a fire tamer, his images are decorated with fire lanterns, braziers and incense burners; Ji–Nu is musical, his images are decorated with musical instruments, he is responsible for holidays; Bi-Qi (Bi–Si) is like a tiger, capable of distinguish between truth and falsehood, make fair decisions; he is depicted on the gates of prisons; Fu-Si – owns writing, his images are accompanied by stone steles with inscriptions. ^[8]

         In publications, in particular in Russian, there are often different spellings of the names of Chinese dragons, but their essence is clear and understandable.

         In addition to directly related dragons, there are hundreds of dragons in Chinese mythology, each with its own specific features and functions: they control rains, cause or pacify hurricanes, volcanic eruptions, floods, direct the flow of rivers, guard underground treasures, administer justice, are responsible for the cardinal directions (east, west, north, south and center of China) and they have their own private, local functions, tasks and signs.

         All of them were depicted in accordance with the canons and were recognizable by the population. Their cultural and social role as a whole has earned trust, has become regulating in behavior and the right way of life. The dragon has become a symbol of goodness, justice and hope for well-being. He was worshipped, temples were built, sacrifices were made. And even when there were changes of philosophical and religious trends in the beliefs of the Chinese (Confucianism, Taoism, Buddhism), the Dragon remained a spiritual reality and was deeply revered by them.

         The dominant meaning was given to Wang Lung - "Heavenly Lord", "King of all beasts", which had a yellow–gold color and in ancient times was called the Yellow Dragon – Huang Lung.

         In the feudal era, due to the policy of strengthening the power of the rulers, the ancient image of the "Yellow Dragon" became more active and served as a convincing basis for this. In ancient written sources there is information about a "Yellow Emperor" with a "yellow Dragon body", which seemed to indicate the origin of the ruler who has blood ties with the "Heavenly Dragon". For the first time, the Chinese ruler Ying Zheng, the unifier of the disparate Chinese principalities, who took the title Qin Shi Huang (259-210 BC), compared himself with the "Yellow Dragon", which meant: Huang – yellow (golden), Di – "emperor", the ruler of the country of Qin.  His subjects began to perceive him not only as a ruler, but also as a spiritual mentor, drawing analogies with the sacred "Yellow Dragon". The image of the Dragon was proclaimed the symbol of the Emperor and the official emblem of the imperial power. Since that time, clothes, items belonging to the emperor, palace decoration in the interiors and outside – everything was decorated with images of dragons. The Yuan government (XIV century) even announced a ban on the use of the image of the Yellow Dragon in the everyday life of ordinary citizens. As for the images of dragons on objects of decorative and applied art for the emperor and his family, they were created from expensive materials, by the best craftsmen, were exquisitely beautiful, served as a sign of sacred greatness and were often expensive diplomatic gifts. These masterpieces were created by artisans from the common people. In turn, their accumulated skills and creative thinking contributed to the development of unofficial folk art. In the folk environment, ornaments depicting dragons mainly had a meaning associated with asking Heaven for blessings and protection from misfortunes and troubles, and were also benevolent signs of happiness. In Chinese traditional culture, the Dragon mainly symbolizes active, positive power and good sense. The dragon has become a symbol of the Chinese nation.

         "During the Middle Ages, the fantastic appearance of the Dragon acquired vivid, precisely fixed features. He has a writhing scaly snake body, a horned head with a shaggy mane, four clawed paws and 81 thorns on his back (that is, nine times repeating the nine), as befits the Yang force." [2. p. 143].

          And even to this day, wherever, in whatever countries and cities the Chinese live, images of dragons accompany them as souvenirs of deep folk memory, as symbols of self-identification with China.

         Following China, the image of the Dragon took root in Japan and Korea, where it was also a symbol of moral perfection and a popular motif of the image in Buddhist art. His images served as illustrations to many legends, he was a complex and multi-valued fantastic character in decorative and applied art products. ^[4]

         Acquaintance with the Chinese Dragon in pre-Christian Europe occurred through rare cases of exotic objects coming from the East along trade routes (from the II century BC along the Eastern Trade Silk Road, and in the XVI-XVII centuries along the sea route through the transnational East India Company), as well as through legends and myths retold by travelers and merchants. 

         For Europeans, the image of the Chinese Dragon was alien, incomprehensible and unfriendly. He rather frightened them and did not inspire confidence and sympathy. Since ancient times, snakes have been associated with the deadly danger of a poisonous bite. Serpentine winged, flying dragons inspired people with fear and horror.

         Ancient Greek mythology contains information about dragons, ferocious and terrible, who performed the guard functions of guarding jewels in the treasuries of the Olympian gods: dragon-like monsters: Delphinium, Ladon, hundred-headed Typhon, Python and others. They were at enmity with each other and were dangerous to people. Many ancient myths tell about the battles of Greek heroes with terrible dragon snakes and about victories over them. In antique cameos and engravings, in vase paintings and mosaics there are images of such legendary heroic scenes of battles and victories. Legends about dragon fighters (Cadmus, who strangled a man-eating dragon, Perseus who saved Andromeda by killing a sea Dragon, and others) were preserved for a long time in the heroic epic of European peoples and were reflected in art. [7 p. 304]

         The early medieval Scandinavian tribes in the VIII-XII centuries AD were still pagans. Their way of life was harsh and dangerous. Going on a long voyage, they sought to capture prey and enrich themselves with it. The flags of Viking ships often depicted dragons – "draki". This symbol inspired and supported the Vikings in their difficult conquering, often predatory campaigns, in the hope that the Dragon would grant them boundless strength and luck. "The depictions of dragons, snakes, fantastic beasts and other monsters are extremely diverse and are found as marginalia in many works of art of medieval Europe. They form rather a picture of medieval artistic thinking" [9. p. 200]

         In ancient Germanic and Old Norse myths, there are huge snake-like monsters, which were called "fights". The most famous sagas are about the greedy drake Fafnir (XIV century), guarding the treasure, who is defeated by the hero Sigurd (Siegfried). Much later, this plot and the hero became the characters of the folk epic "Tales of the Nibelungs". In 1886, the premiere of Richard Wagner's 4 private opera "The Ring of the Nibelungs" took place in Bavaria, where the character of Scandinavian mythology Drak Fafnir, defeated by the brave Siegfried, participates there.

         In the West, the Chinese word MOON and what it means as a concept for the Chinese is commonly called the word "dragon", perhaps by its rumbling sound, perhaps as a borrowing from Scandinavian mythology. In Western culture, the image of a Dragon is more frightening with its mystery and aggressive power than a hopeful and desirable good image. In Western literature and fine art, he is represented as a huge, scary, loudly growling, ferocious, devouring people, terribly aggressive monster. It is a symbol of evil that causes fear in people.

         The Christianization of Europe caused a radical change in the attitude towards the Dragon. Under the influence of religious factors, the image of the Dragon in Western culture had a negative character. He turned into a symbol of Satan, the Devil, "Evil spirits".

         Europeans see the Dragon as an evil and ferocious animal that brings people troubles and misfortunes, is the personification of vices and violence. Killing a Dragon is a brave and right thing to do, and the person who killed the Dragon is a brave hero.

         The mythological motif of the battle of the snake-fighting hero with the Dragon was later widely spread in the legends of European peoples, and then penetrated into literature in the form of the legend of St. George, who defeated the Dragon and freed the girl captured by him ("The Miracle of George about the Snake"). Literary treatments of this legend and their corresponding images are characteristic of medieval European art.

         A young Christian named George on a white horse, having made the sign of the cross, rushed to fight against evil spirits – a Dragon that brought a lot of suffering to people, devouring residents. Having overtaken the Dragon, he exclaimed: "In the name of the Father and the Son and the Holy Spirit!" he plunged a spear into his mouth and threw him to the ground. The people glorified the hero, calling him St. George the Victorious. He became revered in different countries, he was perceived as a patron and protector, depicted on weapons, shields, coats of arms, icons. He inspired people to believe in victory over the power of evil.

         In European myths about saints, dragons often appear as tempters, seeking to turn a person away from faith in Christ. Victory over such a vision is the hardening of faith and soul.

         In European painting and decorative arts in the Catholic tradition, St. George is depicted in military armor in an attack on a terrible giant Dragon with wings and clawed paws.

         In Russian Orthodox culture, the image of a Dragon is the embodiment of evil, a representative of hell, "evil spirits". In folk folklore, he is a Snake–Gorynych, "a filthy snake" - and the culprit of all sorts of troubles and disasters, but we always win by someone from the Russian heroes: Dobrynya Nikitich, Alyosha Popovich, knight Yeruslan.

         In the Russian Orthodox icon, the image of St. George the Victorious ("The Miracle of the Great Martyr George about the Serpent") is depicted as a young warrior, without heavy armor and helmet, but with a halo, riding a white horse (usually from left to right) and striking a long and sharp spear into the mouth of a serpentine Dragon writhing on the ground, represented by with very small wings that cannot lift him from the ground to the sky. [1. p. 17] Such an interpretation of the plot depicting the scene of the battle of St. George the Victorious with a Dragon in the Orthodox tradition rather reminds of the need for a man to fight with dragons inside himself.

         Both on the coat of arms of Russia, on the coat of arms of Moscow, and on the order, a shield with St. George on a white horse striking a fierce enemy snake with a spear is depicted. The image of St. George the Victorious is a victorious symbol of Russia. 

         Chinese products with the image of a Dragon came to Russia already in the XVI century along the land route with trade caravans, transit from China to Europe, as well as with Russian diplomatic missions returning from China as exotic gifts.

         So at the same time, artistic items with native Chinese images of dragons were brought to Russia and became, as a result of the fashionable fascination with China, paraphrases of European chinoiserie. With all the fashionable fascination with Chinese culture and art, dragons did not arouse sympathy. A rare item with images of Chinese dragons is a felon embroidered in China for Russians – part of the church attire. The embroidery motif – "Dragons playing with a pearl in the clouds" – is a traditional benevolent Chinese image " ... "When looking at them, members of the embassy ... noted that the fabrics were embroidered with dragons of "disgusting appearance"." [3. p.47]

          Engravings, paintings, motifs of paintings of objects of decorative and applied art of Europe (porcelain, lacquer panels, textiles) were mainly preferred with images of the Phoenix bird of happiness and scenes of "fabulous life in the East". The Chinese – "the heroes of the murals play music, drink tea, eat wonderful fruits, sometimes perform simple work that boils down to collecting the gifts of nature: catch crayfish, extract bird eggs." [6. p. 17]

         Arising and developing on the territory of different nationalities (peoples), during their interaction and cultural exchanges, the image of the Dragon and its special mythological and artistic interpretation takes place. Compared to the Chinese Dragon, which has powerful wings and communicates with the sky and brings good and fulfillment of hopes to the Chinese, the dragons in European art and, in particular, Russian Orthodox iconography, concentrate dangerous and evil qualities that need to be fought. In accordance with the mental foundations of the peoples' thinking, the image of the Dragon acquires its own special meaning.