Abstract: The paper analyses dynamics of social policy in the 20th century in Germany, Britain, France, Spain, Russia, the USA and China as the largest states, where the largest changes in the field of social security took place. The existing approaches to the typology of social states are considered. The article studies reasons for the formation, changes and organisation of the social security systems, the mutual influence of the different states in the field of social policy. The article presents an assessment of the problems faced by social states, evaluation of the advantages and disadvantages of different models of social policy, and overview of changes in models in different countries. Economic and political factors influencing decision-making in the field of social policy, as well as the consequences of social reforms, are analyzed. Analysis of the causes of transformations in social policy is carried out through the study of institutions, regulations, and statistical data. The organization, regulation and modernization of pension and health insurance systems, benefits, allowances and subsidies for certain categories of consumers in the 20th century was caused by large-scale economic and political transformations. Mass industrial production made goods more accessible, and redistribution systems became a tool for balancing the market and ensuring the sustainability of the economy. Democratization and expansion of suffrage, the spread of radical ideologies or changes in political regimes created a demand for means of ensuring social stability, which was supplied by the social programs. The increase in spending on social policy began to create problems for the sustainability of budgets at the end of the 20th century, which led to attempts to limit social programs, but a reduction in spending did not occur due to the political and economic importance that the welfare state has acquired in the 20th century.

Abstract: The difference in organizational forms in social policy is caused by different economic and political reasons and different political and philosophical approaches to social problems. The hierarchy of values defines opinions on the social question and ideas about the appropriate architecture of social policy. The decisions that laid the foundations for social policy in Europe were made in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, and their logic resembles the philosophy of the “Christian socialism” most. The purpose of the article is to identify and compare the attitude of Russian authors who were closest to Christian socialism towards the social question and their approaches to solving it. The key works of the authors on the social question were studied. The comparative historical approach, hermeneutics, discourse analysis, and institutional analysis were used. All authors tend to problematize both the social question and its' solutions, rather than offer their own proposals. All three talk about the importance of human internal development and criticize socialist ideas about environmental determinism and human renewal through mechanical reorganization of the economy. All authors moved from Marxism to its criticism, although Berdyaev's views shifted in his later works to the left, to the most radical position of the three thinkers, to the conviction that capitalism has to be abolished, which he blames for oppression and exploitation. Bulgakov sympathizes with the logic of economic organization in socialism, but considers it possible to change economic relations while maintaining the political system. Frank is convinced that limited social reforms within the framework of a market economy are sufficient to provide social support to those in need. Berdyaev and Bulgakov think that justice is the most important value, while Frank thinks that duty is. Berdyaev and Bulgakov follow the key arguments of Christian socialism, and Frank - those of liberal conservatism.

Abstract: The subject of the study is the causes and nature of the functioning of social policy as a risk management system. The article discusses the emergence of practices of redistribution of wealth to solve political, economic, social and moral problems and the features of the implementation of these practices. The social policy of the ancient world is studied, aimed at managing the risks associated with solidarity and the stability of the hierarchy. The influence of the three Abrahamic religions is considered, which led to the fact that social support received the character of the fulfillment of religious prescriptions. The risks that arose in the industrial era, that is, the risk of social stability and economic slowdown due to the insolvency of large groups of the population, and then the risk of refusal of economic activity of social assistance recipients, are analyzed. The importance of social policy regulation increases with the complexity of the economy and democratization. On one hand, a developed social policy protects individuals from the risks of disability and economic instability. On the other hand, due to the aging of the population, the costs of social policy increase, which itself becomes a source of risk, since its reduction turns out to be politically unacceptable. This feature is complicated by the coexistence of a number of historical features of social support systems and their perception based on a unique combination of ethical and economic premises.

Abstract: The subject of this research is the category of dignity in the British political philosophy. The object of this research is the British individualism. The article examines the relation of representatives of the British political philosophy to the category of dignity. Ethical component, which was present throughout the historical evolution of the British political philosophy (a common factor in establishment of the British individualism), can be exemplified by views of the judge and philosopher J. F. Stephen (1829-1894). Stephen will be of interest to the Russian audience as a representative figure of intellectual climate existed during the bloom of entrepreneurial society. The article presents a brief history and complex analysis of the British individualism. The views of J. F. Stephen are analyzed in the context of Britain's most prominent thinkers. Among the main conclusions are the following statements: 1) the category of dignity holds an important place in the British political philosophy and leans on the two related categories – “freedom” and “ownership”; 2) ethical component of the British political philosophy can be demonstrated through the views of the judge and philosopher J. F. Stephen (1829-1894); 3) the value of British political philosophy as a whole, and Stephen's ideas in particular, for the Russian and European political science consists in the ability to adopt and reconsider the proven experience in area of political ethics, axiology, and teleology. The scientific novelty is defined by the fact that this article is the first within the Russian science to carry out a systemic analysis of intellectual heritage of the British philosopher J. F. Stephen, as well as provide assessment of the parallel development of British individualism and attitude to dignity within the British political philosophy.

Abstract: The subject of this research is the British political novel. The bject of this research is the British individualism. The article examines perception of British society in political novels, impact of the political novels on society and social changes in XIX century Britain. Novel as a subject of the research presents a unique possibility to analyze social and political processes perceived through personal judgement. The article covers four novels, which encompass the entire XIX century. These texts allow to track the pace of modernization of the British society, to study the transition of an individual's place within the society and to examine changes of an individual's perception of his mission towards the society. Among the main conclusions are the following statements: 1) British political novel had a profound impact on the formation of British identity; 2) British political novel carries elements of a cultural code within itself, decryption of those allows to present a qualitative analysis and prognosis considering political processes in Britain; 3) British political novel contains valuable conceptual elements, fit for reception and interpretation within the framework of other political and philosophical cultures. Scientific novelty of the research lies in the following: 1) Complex analysis of the novels reviewed in their relation to social modernization has been performed for the first time; 2) Political meaning of two of the four novels reviewed has been evaluated in Russian literature for the first time; 3) Several foreign sources on the problem have been introduced.