The history of the appearance and specifics of the development of comics in Arab countries

Akhmatshina Enesh Kurbanseiidovna ORCID: 0000-0001-6795-3031 PhD in Politics Senior Lecturer; Faculty of Oriental Studies; St. Petersburg State University 199034, Russia, Saint Petersburg, Universitetskaya nab., 7/9 e.akhmatshina@spbu.ru Nikonov Sergey Borisovich ORCID: 0000-0002-8340-1541 Doctor of Politics Professor; Department of International Journalism; St. Petersburg State University 199034, Russia, Saint Petersburg, Universitetskaya str., 7/9, 707 NikonovS@mail.ru Other publications by this author     Kozlova Ekaterina Nikolaevna Master's Degree; Faculty of Oriental Studies; St. Petersburg State University 199034, Russia, Saint Petersburg, Universitetskaya nab., 7/9 n.labush@spbu.ru

Gromova Lyudmila Petrovna ORCID: 0000-0002-9596-5600 Doctor of Philology Professor; Department of History of Journalism; St. Petersburg State University 199034, Russia, Saint Petersburg, Universitetskaya nab., 7/9 gromova_spb@mail.ru

Modern journalism cannot bypass such a phenomenon as comic journalism. Allegory, the publication of cartoons in which certain political figures recognize themselves have increasingly begun to appear in the media. Modern media researchers such as A.S. Puyu ^[9], Baichik A.V. ^[10], Davidenko Ya.O. ^[11], Koryakina E.V. ^[12], Stepanets M. V. ^[13], Staruseva-Persheeva A.D., Fadeeva T. E., Skovorodnikov P. Yu., Lushkin S. S. ^[14] Tursumatova S.F. ^[15] believe that the study of comics as a creolized text is very important. Addressing the topic of comics in Arab countries is, in fact, a novelty of research.

As part of the study of the history of comics, as well as its research as a tool for influencing the masses, it is interesting to pay attention to the work of Scott McCloud, an American comic artist, theorist and writer known for his research on comics and their impact on culture. One of his works devoted to the theory of comics is the book Understanding Comics, in which he examines comics as an art form and discusses their impact on readers' perception and understanding. Scott McCloud argues that comics are a powerful means of conveying information and emotions, capable of conveying complex messages through visual images and text. He also emphasizes the universality of comics as a means of communication capable of attracting a wide audience of different ages and cultural contexts. [1 c.15]

In his work, McCloud draws attention to a fairly common stereotype that comics are low-intellectual material. And indeed, among groups of people who have never been deeply immersed in the world of comics, have not made attempts to study this type of test, sometimes such a judgment becomes common. However, it is unfair, since comics can be diverse and contain deep and intellectual plots, as well as serve as a means of expressing art and addressing serious topics and topical issues. Comics are also quite often used to convey social and political messages. Thus, the assessment of comics as low-intellectual material is biased and does not take into account the full breadth of their possibilities. [1 c. 34]

The author believes that comics belong to an independent art form. "As an art form, the comic is a vessel capable of accommodating any set of ideas and images." Throughout the conversation with the reader, McCloud again and again attempts to give a more precise and succinct definition of a comic book and eventually takes as a starting point the definition of the American artist, comic book master and screenwriter Will Eisner "consistent art". And eventually comes to the following definition: "Illustrative and other images juxtaposed side by side in a thoughtful sequence to convey information and/ or receive an aesthetic response from the viewer." [1 c.45]

As an art form, the comic has ancient roots that go back to a deep history. Protocomix have been found in rock carvings, ancient Egyptian tombs, bas-reliefs of Assyria and Borobodur, on Trajan's column and stained glass windows of the Cathedral in Chartres. McCloud also refers to the proto-comics the pre-Columbian painted codex of 1519 and the Bayeux tapestry depicting the Norman conquest of England in 1066. [1 c.67]

M. Evdokimova and M. Zaslavsky found early examples of textual and visual storytelling in medieval hagiographic icons, where key moments of his life were shown in the margins around the image of the saint. The elements were arranged in standard chronological order from left to right and top to bottom, and the images were often accompanied by explanatory captions and quotations. [2 c.49]

Icon painting, in turn, influenced book miniature, in particular, this can be seen in handwritten books, where a special image system was used not only as an illustrative function, but also as a narrative one. Evdokimova and Zaslavsky note the important role of the splint, which is an image with a caption and is characterized by simplicity and accessibility. Lubok became most widespread in the XVII century and included various subjects – satirical, news, religious, secular. In 1812, lubok was recognized as an agitational element, and in the 19th century it became popular mass literature. [3 c.27]

Nevertheless, it is customary to call Rodolphe Tepfer the founder of the modern comic book. Since it is believed that the first comic was published in 1833, when the Swiss teacher, writer and artist Rodolphe Toepfer published The Story of Mr. Jabot. This is a story about the adventures of a man who tried to impersonate a secular gentleman, which is why he constantly got into ridiculous situations. It is noteworthy that initially the drawings with signatures were created by Tepfer for his students, but one day the book fell into the hands of an acquaintance of the author – Goethe. He, in turn, was impressed by the way of narration, saying that it was very brave, funny and interesting. A year later, the comic was published. After that, the comic as a genre becomes very popular. Rodolphe Tepfer creates several more works, such as "Doctor Festus", "The Adventures of Albert" and others. [3 c.30]

A few years after the first publication of The History of M. Jabot, in 1837, in the preface to the republication of this book, Tepfer said: "Drawings without text would have only a vague meaning; text without drawings would mean nothing." It can be noted that already at this moment he began to act as a comic book theorist, but he really declared himself in this role in 1845. In his book, Tepfer emphasizes the importance of detailed work with a character in terms of his facial expressions, dynamics of actions, semantic connections between frames to form a holistic hand-drawn story. [4 c.106]

Rodolphe Toepfer is also the author of the first political comic book. According to his views, he was a staunch conservative and, among other things, defended his position as a member of the Parliament of Geneva. As an example, we can cite the comic "Albert's Story", where the main character quite vividly resembles his political opponent James Fazey. It is interesting to note that despite his conservative views, Rodolphe Toepfer discovered comics to the world, which later became the strongest weapon in the hands of liberals and revolutionaries. [4 c.107]

By the beginning of the 20th century, British magazines had fully adopted this idea, and comics similar to those we see today began to appear. It is interesting to note that for most of the 20th century, the concept of comics had a negative connotation. This led to the fact that a large number of comic book creators preferred to call themselves, for example, illustrators, artists and cartoonists. Thus, they have gone unfairly unnoticed in this area. (Arabic comics: from Mickey Mouse to Khandala // WorldYou.ru . URL:http://wordyou.ru/v-islame/arabskie-komiksy-ot-mikki-mausa-do-xandaly (date of application: 01/15/2024)

Nowadays, despite the abundance of various ways of consuming information, comics are still relevant, including in the countries of the Middle East. There are several explanations for this. Firstly, they offer a unique combination of art and literature, which makes them attractive to a wide audience. The colorful illustrations accompanying the text allow comics to be accessible and interesting for people of all ages and levels of cultural development. This makes comics a universal means of communication capable of attracting the attention of various groups of the population. Which, in turn, cannot but attract as tools, including political circles, as well as various large companies, segments of the population who pursue different interests and are interested in having access to ambiguous levers of influence on society.

Comics can be used to discuss complex social and political issues. They provide authors with the opportunity to express their thoughts and ideas through visual images and character dialogues. This makes comics an effective tool for raising important topics such as racial and gender inequality, political corruption, environmental issues and other social issues. Due to its simplicity and accessibility, comics can help people better understand complex issues and stimulate public dialogue.

Comics also remain popular due to their ability to entertain and inspire readers. They can offer exciting plots, fascinating characters and humor that can cheer you up even against the background of a tense environment. In addition, comics often offer fantasy worlds and adventures that can be a source of inspiration for readers. Thus, it can be noted that comics remain relevant also due to their ability to captivate, entertain and inspire readers.

Perhaps one of the most decisive factors regarding the fact that comics have remained relevant for several decades now is their flexibility or otherwise adaptability to the rapidly changing world around them. Technologies and innovations, which nowadays penetrate into a person's life with incredible speed, can both help the development of a particular area and stop it completely. As for comics, the emergence of social networks, and the development of technologies that help from a technical point of view to create such texts, accelerated the pace of production of material at times, their distribution around the world, and consequently affect the reach of a larger audience, no longer isolated by the borders of a particular region, improved the quality of the texts themselves, and illustrations. The opportunity to acquire the loyalty of a particular publication, through which it is possible not directly, but rather subtly, through barely perceptible images, to penetrate into a person's consciousness and influence the formation of a particular point of view, attitude towards a particular leader, party, country, group of people, etc., is certainly very attractive and valuable. And when the boundaries are blurred and the scale becomes global, the meaning of investing in the development of the industry becomes more obvious.

The history of the appearance and development of comics in the Middle East dates back to the 40s of the XX century. The first stage was characterized by the translation of well-known comics previously published in Western countries into Arabic. The heroes already familiar to society subsequently gave impetus to the creation of their stories in Arab countries. One of the most popular translated comics was the comic book "Tintin" (or "The Adventures of Tintin"), a series of adventure comics about a young reporter named Tintin, written and drawn by the Belgian artist Hergé (real name - Georges Remy). The series was created in 1929 and has become one of the most famous and popular comic book series in the world. (Krasovskaya A. "The Adventures of Erzhe" - the story of the man who gave the world Tintin // Electronic periodical Kultury!. URL: https://clck.ru/3AJRuQ (date of application: 04/15/2022)

Hergé began to draw from childhood, and even then bubbles began to appear for the dialogues of his characters, who at that time did not yet exist within the framework of comics. Hergé was the first to use the "clean line" technique in comics. "This is a drawing in which, before coloring, all the lines were drawn in ink of the same thickness. Each element is a cell that is filled with color and which is separated from other cells only by a contour." (Krasovskaya A. "The Adventures of Erzhe" - the story of the man who gave the world Tintin // Electronic periodical Kultury!. URL: https://clck.ru/3AJRuQ (date of application: 04/15/2022)

The plot of the comic follows Tintin, his faithful dog Milu and their friends, including Captain Haddock, Professor Calculus and Detective Thomson, as they embark on various adventures around the world. They investigate mysteries, explore ancient civilizations, fight villains and travel to exotic places. The comic was translated into Arabic and Farsi and published in children's magazines. Tintin attracted children and teenagers with its exciting plot, vivid characters and detailed illustrations, and Hergé became famous for his talent for creating fascinating stories with elements of humor, adventure and intrigue.

Mickey magazine became no less popular, which began publishing stories about the well-known Mickey Mouse and his friends. Unlike the Tintin comics, which were created by Belgian artist Hergé, the Mickey Mouse comics were created by American artists and writers within the Disney company.

As for the plot of Mickey Mouse comics in Arab countries, they usually retained the general style and theme of their American originals. However, due to the cultural characteristics and religious beliefs of Arab countries, some aspects and storylines have been adapted or changed to match local values and traditions. Over time, Mickey began to adopt the traditions and customs of the Arabs, comic book issues began to appear, where the famous hero is dressed in traditional clothes, celebrates Muslim holidays and eats Arabic food. [5 c.242]

Gradually, such world-famous heroes as Batman, Tarzan, Superman and others were also translated into Arabic and conquered the Arab world of comics. [5 c.244]

Speaking in more detail about the appearance of the comic in Arab countries, it should be noted that the region of development and distribution of the comic should be divided into two parts - the Maghreb and Mashriq. Since the Maghreb was influenced by French culture, and Mashriq, centered in Cairo and Beirut, was influenced by English.

By the middle of the 20th century, children's magazines began to be published in Egypt, the purpose of which for the first time was not only education, but also entertainment. In 1946-48, two such publications were published in Cairo at once. The first of them is "Al-Awlad" ("Boys"). Not only crosswords and didactic games could be found in the magazine, but also several pages of comics telling about the adventures of a group of boys. Under each drawing there was a story told in rhyme, and the characters, in turn, were carefully drawn within the framework of thoughtful images in accordance with local customs and traditions. The second magazine was called "Al-Katkut" ("Chicken") and it became famous for the fact that it was on its pages that the above-mentioned comic "Tintin" in Arabic first began to appear. It is interesting to note here that Arabic was one of the first languages into which this comic was translated. This happened 12 years earlier, before the English translation appeared. [5 c.245]

The strongest surge in interest in comics occurred in the 1950s, when comics were aimed exclusively at children. Publishing houses that produced such magazines as, for example, Bulbul ("Nightingale") and Ali Baba, having experienced real success, began to invest in the development of these comics not only domestically but also abroad. Egyptian magazines such as Sinbad and Samir were of great importance, whose role in the development of this genre turned out to be huge. It was these comics that were the first to use graphic elements typical of this genre - for example, balls for dialogues. It is also important to note the fundamental difference in the approaches of these two journals regarding the language used in the dialogues. If "Sinbad" was written in classical Arabic, clearly emphasizing in this way its intention to carry not only an entertaining but also an educational meaning, then "Samir" became the first magazine published in the Egyptian dialect, which undoubtedly contributed to the expansion of its audience. [6 c.185]

It is also important to note that this period is characterized by a surge of interest, mainly in comics by Western authors, which were translated into Arabic and adapted to the traditions of the Middle East. The most popular were Marvel characters and Disney characters. The duration of this stage can be estimated at about 20 years - from the late 1940s to the 1970s. During this period, a significant event takes place - the center of production shifts from Egypt to Lebanon. This country has played a significant role in the publication of materials translated from Western languages. Here we can mention the magazine "Dunya al-Ahda" ("The World of Youth"), which was published following the example of the Egyptian Sinbad and became widely known among the younger generation. Of course, there were many other newspapers and magazines that were published in Lebanon during this period. Thus, Lebanon became the second country in the Middle East after Egypt to produce comics. [6 c.190]

It is necessary to analyze what this period was like for Egypt. From the point of view of history, this stage of the country's development can be called a turning point, inspired by the sentiments of modernization and support for development-related directions, as well as the policy of Arabization. In 1952, the "Free Officers" led by Gamal Abdel Nasser overthrew King Farouk. Nasser became the first president of Egypt, a well-known politician and leader of Arab nationalism. He carried out a number of key reforms, including the nationalization of the Suez Canal and other important sectors of the economy. Nasser was also an active participant in the Arab-Israeli conflicts, in particular the 1956 War (also known as the Sinai Campaign) and the 1967 Six-Day War. This political context contributed to the emergence of such a new literary genre as comics, which, among other things, were published in literary Arabic, carrying an educational function and reflecting the directions of the main political line. ^[7]

By the early 70s of the XX century, children's interest in locally produced comics began to decline markedly. The reason for this was that the political parties realized how effective a tool a comic book could become in their hands and began to actively use it. [5 c.251]

After the death of Gamal Abdel Nasser in 1970, his close associate and successor, Anwar Sadat, became president of Egypt. He continued Nasser's policies, and also began to implement some liberal economic reforms and opened the country to foreign investment. [7 c.295]

One of the key moments of Sadat's reign was the signing of the Camp David Accords in 1978, which led to the conclusion of a peace treaty between Egypt and Israel. The Camp David Accords, signed on September 17, 1978 at the Camp David Resort in the United States, represented a historic agreement between Egypt and Israel that led to the conclusion of a peace treaty between the two countries. The agreements were brokered by U.S. President Jimmy Carter.

The main provisions of the Camp David Agreements included: the commitment of both sides to cease hostilities and establish peaceful relations; the withdrawal of Israeli troops from the Sinai Peninsula, which was occupied by Israel during the Six-Day War in 1967; the transfer of control over the Sinai Peninsula back to Egypt; the establishment of diplomatic relations between Egypt and Israel; ensuring security for both sides and the prevention of future military conflicts. [7 c. 295]

The signing of the Camp David Accords allowed Egypt and Israel to conclude a peace treaty in 1979, which became the first peace treaty between an Arab country and Israel. This event was a serious step towards establishing more stable relations between Arab countries and Israel, and also gave hope for a resolution of the Middle East conflict.

The reaction of Arab countries to the Camp David Accords was mostly strongly negative. Many Arab countries have condemned Egypt for signing a peace treaty with Israel and the decision to withdraw from a unified Arab frontline position towards Israel. [8 c.71]

First of all, Saudi Arabia, Jordan and Libya have taken a tough stance, condemning Egypt for its actions. They believed that Egypt had betrayed the Palestinians and the Arab world by signing a peace treaty with Israel. Many Arab leaders and organizations have also opposed the Camp David Accords, saying they do not solve the main problems of the Middle East. Some Arab countries have taken diplomatic measures against Egypt, such as the withdrawal of embassies and sanctions. There have also been mass demonstrations against these agreements in various Arab countries. [8 c.73]

Of course, later the position of the same states began to transform - over time, some Arab countries began to establish diplomatic relations with Israel and recognize its sovereignty. For example, in 1994, a peace treaty was concluded between the State of Israel and the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan and was aimed at normalizing relations between the two States and settling the territorial dispute between them. Thus, the reaction of Arab countries to the Camp David Agreements was complex and diverse, but clearly at the first stage the agreements caused a negative reaction in the Arab world.

The signing of these agreements earned Anwar Sadat the Nobel Peace Prize in 1978. However, he faced opposition in the country and in the region because of his policies and the conclusion of peace with Israel. Sadat was killed during a military parade in 1981 by a sniper when he got up from his seat, amazed by the shelling of a military truck.

Of course, such a political shake–up both within the country and in the international arena could not but affect the material that was published within the framework of creolized texts - be it political posters, cartoons or comics. It was necessary to get the support of the population, and for this it was necessary to explain and convince them of the correctness of the state line. Creolized texts can be an effective tool in such cases.

So, even in children's magazines in Egypt, Syria and Iraq, images and information about the activities of political leaders and regimes began to appear very clearly, and sometimes through certain associations. The parties began to finance magazines that supported their ideology. These processes can be traced in such magazines as Osama (1969), Majalyati (My Magazine) and Al-Mizmar (Flute, 1970). The focus of children switched to Western publications. Also at this time, Japanese comics began to penetrate the Middle East, which were also translated into Arabic. They, like Western ones, interested children more than Arab-made comics, since they were not burdened with ideology and instructive stories.

Some time later, in the late 70s and early 80s, Arab authors again attempted to create a series of locally produced comics. An example is the magazine "Majid", named after the Yemeni navigator Ahmad ibn Majid. Formally, this magazine is considered Emirati, but in fact it is Egyptian, since it was founded by the Egyptian journalist Ahmad Omar, and its editorial board consisted, among others, of the popular Egyptian cartoonists Hijazi and El Labbad, who managed to portray the navigator at a higher level. This weekly magazine was able to achieve distribution, gain a wide audience and become one of the most popular children's magazines in the Arab world.

Comics for the older generation first began to appear in Lebanon only in the 80s. These were single editions such as Carnaval (1980) and Freud (1983), as well as JADWorkshop comics. By 2000, attempts could be seen to turn back to the comic book genre, but through independent publications. Examples include comics such as "The 99", a comic from Kuwait created by Naif Al-Mutawa, or "Le Jeu des Hirondelles" by Zeina Abi Rashed, which tells about the author's childhood during the Lebanese civil war. The story of "The 99" is quite interesting, as this comic book series tells about a group of superheroes, each of whom has special super abilities associated with the 99 epithets of Allah in the Islamic tradition. The characters represent various countries and cultures of the Muslim world, their superpowers reflect their personal qualities and characteristics. The comic "The 99" was created to promote tolerance, respect for the diversity of cultures and religions, as well as to inspire young people. The plots include elements of adventure, the fight against evil and the development of the characters' personality. "The 99" has been widely recognized for its positive impact on readers.

A fairly striking example characterizing the situation in this area at the turn of the century is the Egyptian comic strip "Mitru: Tarikh al-Kahira" (Metro: the history of Cairo) by Magdi al-Shafi'i. His graphic novel Metro is one of his most famous works. The comic was a great success and enjoyed wide popularity in the Arab world. The volume of the comic is 95 pages, which unfolds the story of a young man specializing in computer software and facing bankruptcy due to widespread corruption. During this one of the most difficult periods of his life, he and his friend decide to rob a bank.

This novel, like its author, had a difficult fate. In addition to satirizing the conditions during the rule of former President Mubarak and how the police handled peaceful protests, the comic sheds light on many aspects of life in Egypt. A novice specialist with an excellent education decides to rob a bank in an environment of political instability, general unrest and protest moods. Al-Shafi'i in his work also draws the reader's attention to a well-known incident when supporters of the ruling National Party in Egypt were accused of attacking a female journalist and ripping off her clothes in front of the police during demonstrations against the resumption of the regime of President Mubarak.

The political regime existing at the time of the novel's release saw this comic as a threat to itself. As a result, the author and the publisher were convicted and fined five thousand pounds, and the novel was confiscated. Interestingly, the accusation made against the novel was of a moral rather than a political nature: the novel was called violating public morality and publishing immoral and inappropriate materials.

After Sadat's assassination, Hosni Mubarak became president of Egypt, who ruled the country until 2011, when he was overthrown as a result of popular protests during the Arab Spring.

Mubarak was born into a peasant family in a small town in the Nile Delta. He served in the Egyptian Air Force and became an aviation commander in 1972. In 1975, he was appointed Vice President of Egypt.

Under his rule, Egypt has become a country with an authoritarian regime that suppresses the opposition and restricts freedom of speech. This regime has also been linked to corruption and human rights violations. The Arab Spring in Egypt began on January 25, 2011, when thousands of Egyptians took to the streets of Cairo and other cities, demanding political reforms and Mubarak's departure from office.

When Magdi al-Shafi'i tried to publish it again after the 2011 revolution, his request was rejected by the Minister of Culture. In this connection, the author has published it in English. And despite everything, the comic has found a new life, including in a number of Arab countries such as Lebanon and the UAE, and has also been translated into Italian.

Magdi al-Shafi'i stated in one of his interviews: "When I was young, I didn't like to talk, but I loved pictures very much, and it became an obsession for me that a picture is more expressive than words." Al-Shafi'i added: "I've loved comics since I was a kid–Mickey, Superman and Batman, and they were my greatest reward at the time, and TinTin magazine had a huge impact on my understanding of comics. It concerned history, science and... life."

The turn of the XX and XXI centuries is characterized not only by the desire of authors to work on independent publications, but also by a change in the language in which comics are published. If during the formation and spread of this genre in the Middle East, in the second half of the 20th century, comics were written mainly in literary Arabic, then since the early 2000s, comics have increasingly begun to appear in the local dialect, thereby becoming closer to readers, communicating with them in a familiar and understandable language. Thus, the level of trust and engagement of the audience has increased significantly.

The final formation of comics in the Middle East as an independent and generally accepted genre falls precisely during this period. This can be confirmed by the annual International Comic Book Festival FIBDA (Festival International de la Bande Dessinée d'Alger), which takes place in Algeria under the auspices of the Ministry of Culture. The festival was first held in 2008.

The Arab revolutions and the fall of governments had a strong influence on the distribution of comics. Comics have become a great tool for expressing dissatisfaction and criticism. Moreover, the previously existing problem, which consisted in the constant lack of funding for comics, was partially solved by introducing the Internet into society. It became easier for authors to share material, and the speed of distribution of comics became incomparable with those that were at a time when magazines were the only platform for hand-drawn stories, where several pages were allocated to them.

The possibility of publishing a comic on the Internet also solved the problem of censorship. Publications devoted to the problems of adults began to appear, which were especially popular with young people. This is how the Tuktuk magazine appeared, which was founded in 2011 by five artists from Cairo (Al-Shinnawi, Rahma, Andil, Makhlouf and Taufiq) and published on the Internet to avoid censorship. The comic shed light on topics that ridiculed customs and habits deeply ingrained in Egyptian society. Even the name itself – Tuktuk – ridicules the shortcomings of Egyptian society. Since a tuktuk is a three—wheeled vehicle, unsafe and acting as a taxi. Moreover, comics are beginning to appear, which are published only on the Internet, and the names of whose artists remain anonymous.