Comparative analysis of Jesuit architecture of the XVI-XVIII centuries in Asia

Chen' Ke PhD in Art History Postgraduate student; Institute of History; Saint Petersburg State University 199034, Russia, city, Saint Petersburg, line. 5th V.O., 2/19 tuoluochen@gmail.com

European architecture in the XVI-XVIII centuries in the Asian region developed within the framework of the formation of European colonial empires that followed the era of Great Geographical Discoveries. The Spanish and Portuguese Empires sought to consolidate their influence in the regions of South and Southeast Asia, and religion often became one of the most important mechanisms for planting colonial culture in the region. The Catholic Church, against the background of the Counter-Reformation, actively carried out missionary activities in Asia and America, and as part of this process, various buildings for worship arose. The Jesuits were among the most active in the context of the missionary activity of the orders, and they were also actively involved in the dissemination of education in the colonies. In addition, they were distinguished by a specific approach to architecture, expressed in a separate style called "Jesuit Baroque." Jesuit sermons have left their mark not only in the culture, but also in the architecture of Asia. Various Catholic churches and other buildings, such as colleges, were built in China, India, East Timor, Japan, and the Philippines. It was both Jesuit architecture and the architecture of other orders. Of course, it was largely built according to European architectural canons, but it also had its own distinctive features.

The relevance of this work is due to the growing interest in the problems of cultural interaction in the era of Great Geographical Discoveries and the spread of European influence beyond Europe. Studying Jesuit architecture in Asia allows us to better understand the mechanisms of adaptation of the Catholic tradition to the specifics of different cultures and to reveal the role of architecture as a means of religious expansion and intercultural dialogue. In addition, the study of the syncretism of Jesuit architecture is of interest in the context of modern globalization and issues of cultural heritage preservation.

The purpose of this study is to identify common patterns and specific differences in the architectural traditions of Jesuit architecture in Japan, Goa (India) and Macau (China), due to socio-cultural, political and economic factors. The research aims to study the influence of European architectural canons of the Jesuit Baroque on regional styles, as well as to analyze the adaptation of missionary architecture to local conditions.

This study uses the Jesuit architecture of three Asian regions as an object of research – Japan, Macau (China) and Goa (India), which is explained by the fact that, on the one hand, there was an active presence of Jesuits in these regions, and, on the other hand, there was a different socio-cultural background of the spread of Christian culture in these countries. and architecture, too. The subject of the study is a set of characteristic features of Jesuit architecture in Japan, Goa and India in the period from the XVI to the XVIII centuries. – the period of the active presence of the Jesuits in the selected regions.

The research is based on an interdisciplinary approach combining historical and architectural analysis, comparative typological method and elements of a cultural approach. The paper analyzes primary and secondary sources, including written testimonies of Jesuit missionaries, historical chronicles, as well as preserved architectural monuments.

The novelty of the research lies in a comprehensive comparative analysis of Jesuit architecture in three different cultural and historical contexts, which makes it possible to identify patterns of adaptation of European architectural traditions to Asian conditions. Unlike most works examining the architecture of the Jesuits in colonial America and Europe, this study focuses on the mechanisms of synthesis of Baroque architecture with local traditions in Asia. For the first time, one study conducted a detailed comparison of Japanese, Goan, and Macau architectural experiences and showed how the level of political autonomy of the region, economic support for missions, and the attitude of local authorities to Catholic expansion determined the nature of the adaptation of architectural forms.

Initially, it is necessary to give a brief overview of the features of Jesuit architecture in general. In general, the architecture of the Jesuits, like all Catholic Counter-Reformation architecture, was based on the Instructions for the Construction and Improvement of Churches by Carlo Borromeo^[1]. Carl Borromeo's "Instructions" are a set of rules, guidelines, and recommendations that he developed and implemented during his tenure as Archbishop of Milan. They were aimed at strengthening discipline, improving the education of the clergy and raising the moral level of both clergy and laity. They also concerned architecture. The important aspects mentioned in his instructions regarding the architecture of Catholics, including Jesuits, included: the location of the church on an elevation, the spaciousness of the premises, the location of the main altar opposite the central portal, strict regulations on the location of altars and chapels, the tabernacle in the center of the altar, the preference for a plan in the form of a Latin cross ^[2].

The basic typology of Jesuit temples is based on the church of Il Gesu in Rome, built in 1568-1584 ^{[3, 54]}. The church is a domed basilica in terms of a Latin cross. The architectural features include a wide main nave with side chapels instead of side aisles, a dome above the middle aisle, an apse, a combined choir and nave space for maximum capacity and good visibility of the altar. The facade features of churches of this type include the symmetry of the composition, two (or three) tiered division, decoration with pilasters and sculptures, triangular pediment, buttressed volutes and the emphasized main axis of the building. Also a characteristic feature were, according to Borromeo's instructions, religious images on the central facade.

Thus, the stylistic features of the "Jesuit Baroque" in Europe included such features as an abundance of decorative elements, majestic architectural forms, ornate facades, the creation of a majestic and impressive image, following the instructions of Carlo Borromeo and the example of Il Gesu.

Functionally, such structures were aimed at collective prayer, were adapted for preaching activities, and combined liturgical and educational functions. In addition, in addition to the temples themselves, the Jesuits, whose activities were aimed, among other things, at the development of education, actively built colleges. They were often built in a complex together and next to temples. These principles were universal for Jesuit buildings both in Europe and in the colonies, although in colonial architecture they could adapt to local traditions and conditions.

Japan has a unique history of Christian development in Asia, because, unlike, for example, China, India or the Philippines, it has never been a European colony and was not strongly influenced by Western countries. Among all the Catholic orders, it was the Jesuits, led by the famous missionary Francis Xavier, who were the first to arrive in Japan in the 16th century. Jesuit architecture in Japan of the XVI–XVII centuries developed in difficult historical conditions associated with the spread of Christianity, political changes and cultural peculiarities of the country. Japan of the XVI–XVII centuries experienced a period of civil wars (Sengoku jidai) and unification under the rule of Oda Nobunaga, Toyotomi Hideyoshi and Tokugawa Ieyasu. Unlike India and Macau, missionaries in Japan did not have the support of military forces or active trade under the protection of the Portuguese or Spanish Empire. There were no settlements founded by Europeans. Moreover, climatic features, as well as the specifics of island life and the lack of resources also influenced the development of Jesuit architecture in the country ^[4].

Unlike India and China, where the European presence was quite long-lasting, the presence of missionaries in Japan was limited to the 16th century. At first, they received support from some local daimyo (feudal rulers), who saw in Christianity an opportunity to strengthen their political and economic ties with Europeans, but at the end of the 16th century, after the decree of Toyotomi Hideyoshi in 1587, persecution of Christians began, both missionaries and converts. During the Edo period (from 1603), the policy of the Tokugawa Shogunate became even more stringent, which led to the complete prohibition of Christianity and the destruction of churches. It is precisely with these political and socio-cultural features that the specifics of Jesuit architecture in Japan are connected. In addition, there are no examples of Japanese Jesuit architecture to date, and it has to be judged based on the sources of its contemporaries and rare graphic images.

Christian churches were named "nanban" ^[5]. An important feature of Jesuit architecture in Japan was its adaptation to local conditions. It is worth noting that the local architectural traditions based on the use of wood and modular layout were very different from European stone buildings. The Jesuits in Japan actively adapted to local building traditions, using wood as the main material. This was due to its accessibility, earthquake resistance, and familiarity with the local population. They often rebuilt existing buildings, such as Buddhist temples or daimyo houses, for churches and mission centers. This was also due to the desire to save money. Jesuit churches included traditional Japanese elements such as sliding doors (fusuma), tatami mats, and raised floors to protect against damp. Roofs often had deep eaves, typical of Japanese architecture, which helped protect buildings from rain.

Despite the adaptations, the Jesuits sought to preserve European features in architecture, such as the longitudinal layout (long nave) and high ceilings, in order to distinguish their churches from Buddhist temples. For the Jesuits, it was still important to follow the traditions of Carlo Borromeo, although the exact execution of the "Instructions" in Japan was difficult. The interior of the churches was decorated with European religious objects such as altars, icons and retables. They were usually imported from Europe. Jesuit churches were often built on several floors, which was unusual for traditional Japanese architecture. This was due to the limited land and the missionaries' desire to create impressive structures that would attract attention. For example, the Church of the Assumption of the Blessed Virgin Mary in Kyoto had three floors, which caused controversy among local residents because of its height.

Another feature of churches in Japan was the mobility and reuse of materials. During the persecution, the Jesuits often dismantled and moved churches, using the same materials to build new buildings. For example, the Kedomari Church in Satsuma was dismantled and transported to Nagasaki. This practice was consistent with the Japanese tradition of reuse of building materials.

Alessandro Valignano, a Jesuit missionary, played a key role in developing building guidelines that emphasized the need to respect local traditions while preserving Christian identity^[6]. He established the principles of the construction of religious buildings in Japan. Valignano's guidelines emphasized that Jesuit buildings should follow Japanese traditions while preserving European elements in churches. He insisted on consulting with Japanese master builders to bring the proportions in line with local customs and include spaces such as zashiki (living rooms with tatami mats on the floor) and tea ceremony areas. At the same time, he also introduced the principle of "no nosso modo" (in our opinion) into the architecture of the Jesuits in Japan, which refers to the European approach to the design of churches. So, in his construction instructions, he indicated that churches should be buildings with a longer nave, which contrasts with the Japanese practice of building temples with a wider layout. This longitudinal plan was designed to distinguish Catholic churches from Buddhist temples and create a special architectural identity of Christianity in Japan. An important feature was the obligatory presence of a cross on the roof and altars, often brought from Europe, inside. In general, it can be noted that Valignano's approach reflected a conscious mixing of cultures.

Jesuit architecture in Japan has become an example of cultural synthesis, where European religious traditions have adapted to local conditions. Jesuit architecture in Japan reflects both the missionaries' desire to spread Christianity and their flexibility in adapting to local cultural and social conditions. In conditions of political instability and lack of funding, the religious architecture of the Jesuits in Japan had little in common with the European one. Local residents often simply converted former Buddhist temples for Christian worship, while missionaries, with the support of the local population and the authorities, sought to rebuild local buildings, making them more consistent with the Jesuit tradition (for example, an elongated nave and multi-tiered structure). According to the preserved data, Jesuit architecture in Japan represented a unique experience of syncretism in architecture, when Christian and national Buddhist traditions were combined.

Christian (including Jesuit) influence in India also began in the 16th century. However, India (more precisely, its part, Goa) was subjected to a stronger and more lasting Christian influence, which, no doubt, was reflected in the architecture. In 1510, Portuguese Admiral Afonso de Albuquerque captured Goa, which became the capital of Portuguese India. The Jesuits arrived in India in 1542, led by Francis Xavier, to spread the Catholic faith as part of the Portuguese colonial expansion. Their activities were concentrated in Goa, which became the center of the Catholic mission in Asia. Later, their influence spread to Tamil Nadu and other regions, where they adapted their preaching strategy, taking into account local cultural traditions ^[7]. Goa's colonial status defined the special role of the Jesuits: they not only built temples and educational institutions, but also engaged in scientific research, the study of local languages and the adaptation of Christian teachings to Indian culture. Old Goa is considered the "city of churches" and the center of the spread of Christianity in the region. With both political and financial opportunities, the Jesuits were able to develop their architecture in Goa in a different way than in Japan.

Nevertheless, it can be noted that Jesuit architecture in India is also a synthesis of European traditions and local building technologies. It was influenced by Italian, Portuguese, Flemish and French architecture ^{[8, 257]}. A classic example of Jesuit architecture in Goa is the single–nave churches with side chapels, following the "Instructions" of Carlo Borrmeo, which provided good visibility of the altar. Due to its status as the capital of Portugal's colonial possessions, local churches boasted monumental facades with pilasters and triangular pediments. However, they were distinguished by a minimum of decorative elements (unlike the rich Baroque of Europe). At the same time, there were more significant differences from European architecture. The use of local materials, such as red laterite and basalt from the Basin, was characteristic, which ensured the durability of buildings in a monsoon climate. The local population was also actively involved in the construction. Wooden and gilded altar carvings made by local craftsmen gave the interiors a unique Indian flavor. Also, elements of the influence of local decorative traditions can be found on the facades. For example, the shell-shaped scrolls framing the pediment of the Basilica of Bon Jesus in Goa (1594-1605) resemble either Indian chakras ^{[9, 367]}. Another important aspect was the peculiarities of the local climate. So, high ceilings, massive walls and natural ventilation systems adapted to the tropical climate were built in temples.

Thus, among the common features of Jesuit architecture in Goa, the following can be distinguished. Firstly, she basically followed the rules of the Council of Trent and the "Instructions" of Carlo Borromeo. Secondly, it was largely based on the architecture of Roman churches, primarily Il Gesu. Like Il Gesu, the Jesuit churches were characterized by a single nave, a cruciform (though more elongated) plan, a loose entablature, a triangular pediment inscribed in an arched pediment, and an abundance of columns and pilasters assembled to the middle of the facade and standing on high pedestals. However, unlike Il Gesu and other Baroque churches, the facade decoration was relatively modest, for example, it lacked sculptures of the Virgin and saints. In addition, there was only a small amount of stucco or carvings decorating the facade. This was specific to the Goan Jesuit Baroque and was associated with a chronic shortage of craftsmen, especially craftsmen with experience in European architecture. Thirdly, in a number of churches, especially in Bon Jesus, and other Jesuit buildings in Goa, a mixture of architectural traditions of India and Europe was clearly expressed. First of all, this was expressed in the use of local materials, as well as local construction technologies, rather than using local symbols. However, due to the involvement of local craftsmen, a number of buildings still displayed features of Indian culture, expressed in certain decorative patterns and multi-tiered facades.

Goa's Jesuit architecture is characterized by a combination of functionality, adaptation to local conditions, and strict adherence to missionary goals. The buildings erected by the Jesuits emphasized their practical approach: they were designed taking into account the tropical climate and the tasks of preaching. Thick walls, high ceilings and natural ventilation systems were used for this purpose. Laterite, basalt and terracotta tiles were widely used as materials, which ensured the durability and resistance of buildings to climatic challenges. Despite the European origin of the architectural traditions, the Jesuits skillfully adapted their designs to local conditions. Their buildings combined European construction technologies with the use of local resources. The interiors and decor reflected elements of the Indian artistic tradition, such as wood carvings and decorative motifs. Nevertheless, the overall style of the buildings remained European, which was especially evident in the facades and layout. The so-called "Goan style" was developed in the architecture of Goa churches ^[10]. This style was common to both Jesuit and other Catholic architecture. Despite the use of local building materials and the involvement of local craftsmen, the overall style remained European. The buildings were designed and planned by European architects, and local craftsmen were not given complete freedom in the creative process. Although some elements of local art were used in the decoration of church interiors, the main style remained alien to Indian traditions.

Macau was an important trade and missionary center in Asia in the XVI–XVII centuries. The Portuguese established themselves in the city in 1553, making it a hub of international trade between China, Japan, India and Latin America. In 1576, Macau became the center of a Catholic diocese that encompassed China, Korea, Siam and other regions. At the same time, Macau, unlike Goa, was not part of a large colony, but rather an outpost of Christianity and trade ^[11]. With limited military (but not economic) resources, the Jesuits could not forcibly inculcate Christianity among the local population and were forced to study local culture and languages more deeply than in India.

The Jesuits played a key role in the development of the city, not only spreading Christianity, but also building churches, schools, and medical facilities. In 1594, St. Paul's College was founded, which became the most important educational center of Catholicism in Asia, and St. Paul's Church at it. Macau was also used as a logistics base for missionaries traveling to Japan, China, and Southeast Asia.

The Jesuit architecture of Macau combined European traditions, oriental decorative elements and local building materials. In general, the architecture of the Jesuits in Macau also followed the characteristic features of the Jesuits. The buildings were distinguished by a Baroque style with decorated facades, triangular pediments and sculptural decor typical of the Jesuits. In Macau, the Jesuits also carefully followed the "Instructions" of Carlo Borromeo. However, the churches, especially the earliest ones, were characterized by a mixture of eastern and Western motifs, as well as the use of local materials (Chinese brick, basalt) and the adaptation of buildings to a humid climate. St. Paul's Church (1602-1640) is one of the most iconic monuments of Jesuit architecture in Asia, which has become a symbol of cultural and religious interaction between the West and the East. It was part of St. Paul's College, the largest Catholic educational center in Asia, founded by the Jesuits in 1594. The church served as an important missionary and educational center from where Christianity spread to mainland China and Japan. In 1835, the building was destroyed by fire, but its facade and part of the staircase were preserved. St. Paul's Church is a striking example of the Jesuit Baroque, but it also shows a strong influence of Chinese, Japanese and local architecture. Thus, the facade of the church is a unique example of the fusion of European and Eastern traditions. The Baroque style with a triangular pediment and columns, and clearly expressed Catholic symbols – statues of Jesus, the Virgin Mary, Saints Francis and Ignatius of Loyola – are characteristic features of the European Jesuit Baroque. However, there are also examples of syncretism typical of the Jesuit colonial Baroque on the facade, for example, Chinese hieroglyphs among Latin inscriptions emphasizing the missionary character of the church, images of dragons symbolizing goodness and protection in Chinese culture, images of chrysanthemums, traditionally meaning longevity and wisdom in Chinese and Japanese traditions ^[12].

It can be concluded that the Jesuit architecture of Macau is a unique example of the cultural synthesis of the West and the East, which arose under the influence of missionary activity, colonial rule of Portugal and interaction with the Chinese tradition. The main feature of Jesuit architecture in Macau was the mixing of European Baroque and local architectural and artistic traditions. In structures such as St. Paul's Church, this synthesis is clearly visible: Western forms (symmetrical facade, columns, pediment) are combined with oriental decorative elements (images of dragons, chrysanthemums, Chinese characters), as well as using local materials and features designed to protect parishioners from the peculiarities of the local climate ^[13]. This reflects the adaptation of Christianity to Chinese culture and the desire of the Jesuits to make their religion more understandable to the local population. In other buildings built later, for example, in the church of St. Joseph, the influence of European Jesuit architecture is more noticeable, and the features of Chinese architecture are expressed in the characteristic sloping tiled roof.

Thus, the Jesuit architecture of Macau is not just a reflection of European influence in Asia, but also an example of deep cultural integration, in which the Catholic tradition has found expressive forms through oriental art. This is due to the fact that it developed in conditions more favorable to the Jesuits than in Japan, but less authoritarian towards the local population than in Goa. It became a symbol of intercultural exchange, which influenced the further development of architecture in the region and left a significant legacy, recognized as a UNESCO World Heritage Site.

Comparing the Jesuit architecture in Japan, Goa and Macau, it is possible to identify both similarities and differences due to historical, political, social and geographical factors. A common characteristic feature of all the buildings was the combination of the desire to follow the European architectural tradition based on the "Instructions" of Carlo Borromeo and the Jesuit Baroque, with elements of the local architectural style caused by the need to adapt to the cultural context and available building materials. However, the degree of this adaptation varied significantly depending on the region, which led to the formation of three different models of development of Jesuit architecture in Asia.

Japanese Jesuit architecture is characterized by the highest degree of syncretism and adaptation to local architectural traditions. This is due not only to the lack of a European military and political presence, but also to the specific conditions in which Christianity developed in Japan. Unlike India and Macau, where Europeans had colonial or semi-colonial power, Japan remained an independent state with strong centralized authority, which forced the Jesuits to seek compromises in their activities. The Christian churches here were named "nanban" and were built in accordance with local building traditions. Due to the lack of resources and climatic conditions, buildings were built of wood, which was more common for the Japanese, and the layout often repeated traditional Japanese houses or Buddhist temples. The interior space could include tatami mats, fusuma sliding doors, and other elements of Japanese architecture. However, even in such conditions, the Jesuits sought to preserve some European features, such as the longitudinal layout and the presence of the altar, which allowed them to preserve the identity of the Catholic church. Political persecution, which intensified at the end of the 16th century, led to the fact that many churches in Japan were either destroyed or had to be rebuilt, which further strengthened the adaptation of architecture to local conditions.

Unlike Japan, Goa's architecture is closest to European Jesuit Baroque, due to its status as the center of Portuguese colonial possessions in Asia. Here, the Catholic Church, and in particular the Jesuit Order, had significant political and material support, which allowed the construction of monumental churches in the traditions of the Italian, Portuguese and Spanish Baroque. The Jesuit architecture of Goa largely followed the classical principles laid down in the Roman church of Il Gesu: single-nave churches with side chapels, monumental facades with pilasters, an entablature and triangular pediments. However, even here the influence of local conditions is observed. For example, massive walls, high ceilings and natural ventilation systems provided comfort in a tropical climate. The use of local materials such as laterite and basalt also influenced the appearance of the structures. Although the facades of churches in Goa were more restrained than in the European Baroque, inside many temples were richly decorated with gilded carvings made by local craftsmen, which created a unique synthesis of European and Indian traditions.

Macau's architecture occupies an intermediate position between Japanese and Goan models, combining elements of the Jesuit Baroque with Chinese artistic and building traditions. Unlike Goa, Macau was not a full-fledged colony, but a trading and missionary outpost, which determined a more lenient policy towards the local population. The influence of the Chinese style is clearly visible in the early Jesuit architecture of Macau, which is especially noticeable in the decor and the use of symbolic motifs. For example, the facade of St. Paul's Church, one of the main monuments of Jesuit architecture in the region, combines Baroque elements with oriental symbols: images of dragons, chrysanthemums, Chinese characters among Latin inscriptions. The use of local materials such as Chinese bricks and the adaptation of buildings to the humid climate also attest to the fusion of the two traditions, and these features are characteristic not only of the early but also of the late architecture of Macau. However, unlike Japanese architecture, where adaptation took place due to forced circumstances, in Macau it was a conscious decision aimed at integrating the Catholic tradition into the local culture.

In conclusion, it can be noted that all three regions have demonstrated different patterns of development of Jesuit architecture. In Japan, where missionaries operated under restrictions, architecture took the form of maximum adaptation to local traditions, including the use of Buddhist temples for the needs of Christianity. In Goa, on the contrary, thanks to the support of the colonial administration, architecture remained the closest to classical Jesuit Baroque, although adapted to climatic conditions. In Macau, the Jesuits created a unique synthesis of European and Chinese architecture, in which Baroque forms were combined with traditional oriental motifs. At the same time, in general, Jesuit architecture in all three regions is characterized by a combination of adherence to the European tradition of Jesuit architecture and syncretism, expressed in the use of architecture and decoration of temples of cultural elements and architectural traditions of local peoples. This is typical of the Jesuits, who generally tended to study local cultures and languages in order to increase the effectiveness of spreading the Christian faith. These features testify to the flexibility of the Jesuits' missionary policy, their ability to adapt their architectural tradition to the specific conditions of each region, which made their cultural heritage an important part of the history of Asian architecture.