Evolution of the ontology of ancient Chinese music

Zhernosenko Irina Aleksandrovna ORCID: 0000-0002-8571-6205 Professor of the Department of Humanities, Altai State Institute of Culture 656055, Russia, Altai Territory, Barnaul, Yurina str., 277 iaj2002@mail.ru Other publications by this author

Lun Tszyayui ORCID: 0009-0004-4049-0240 Postgraduate student of the Department of Museology and Tourism, Altai State Institute of Culture 656015, Russia, Altai Territory, Barnaul, Lenin Ave., 66, room 303 756242576@gmail.com

Introduction. The evolution of the ontology of ancient Chinese music reveals a unique understanding of the role of music in the world order. In ancient China, music was not just considered an art form; it embodied the basic signs of the existence of the world, giving aesthetic perception additional philosophical depth. Over the centuries, Chinese philosophical schools such as Confucianism, Taoism and Buddhism have had a significant impact on the development of musical culture. By introducing Indian Buddhist concepts, Chinese philosophy was enriched with a metaphysical dimension, but the theoretical basis remained rooted in the fundamental ideas of Confucianism and Taoism.

Materials and methods. The study of ancient Chinese musical culture involves deep immersion in a specific worldview, which opens up through three key aspects. Firstly, concepts such as tao, air and sound have become the ideological origins of music. Secondly, the sound and rhythm in music reflect the stable order of the universe, in tune with cosmic patterns. Thirdly, Taoist philosophical principles and number theory serve as the basis for an ontological definition of music, allowing researchers to resort to metaphysical interpretations of its importance. Thus, the analysis of ancient Chinese musical culture requires an integrated approach that takes into account not only the aesthetic side, but also includes a deep understanding of the diverse philosophical concepts underlying the musical worldview of the era.

In ancient Chinese philosophy, ontology was usually considered as a doctrine exploring the causes and patterns of the origin and development of all things. Ancient Chinese thinkers believed that the top of the universe is a kind of supreme being without a form, different from everything that exists, which was the basis and source of all things. Chinese music theory is also based on the relationship of music with this "supreme being".

The earliest mentions of Chinese music can be attributed to the time of the first historical records dating back to the era of the Shang Dynasty (XVI-XI centuries BC) ^{[1, pp.33-34]}. The oracle bones of the Shang Dynasty "Jiaguwen" (Chinese: ) are hieroglyphic inscriptions on fortune–telling bones (turtle shells, shoulder blades of rams and bulls), which document the results of fortune-telling and are considered the oldest examples of Chinese writing. These records contain information about rituals and musical instruments used ^{[2, pp. 50-51]}.

 Primitive music in ancient China originated in the daily lives of people engaged in collective work and found expression in the rhythmic patterns and sounds of their voices. Over time, developing and enriching, those phenomena that could be attributed to music began to accompany prayers, songs, dances, medical and religious rituals, as well as astronomical practices such as observing the sky and making calendars. It was believed that the laws of the universe and social processes were consonant with the laws of music and numbers, therefore, the laws of music were used when compiling astronomical and agricultural calendars. With the expansion of the functions of music, three types of priest-musicians appeared: Wu, Shi and Gu, who participated in religious ceremonies where music played a key role. Wu is the main performer of songs and dances, Shi is a historian who studies celestial phenomena and creates calendars with the help of music, Gu is a music official with limited visual abilities ^{[3, pp. 74-75]}. Their duties and abilities were closely related to music, which became one of the main means of maintaining social stability and transmitting historical myths and legends. Music in ancient China not only permeated everyday life and work processes, but also played a significant role in maintaining religious, cultural and social order, and songs and dances accompanied by music were considered as tools of communication with the gods.

The Chunqiu and Zhanguo periods (770 BC-221 BC). After the fall of the Shang Dynasty in the XI century BC, the Zhou Dynasty came to power, whose rule lasted eight centuries (XI-III BC). In the end, the ancient feudal order established by this dynasty was violated, and Instead of a centralized state, separate principalities emerged, fighting for control of territories and hegemony over the Central Plain. Nevertheless, this complex, chaotic period was marked by the emergence of numerous philosophical schools and the emergence of ideas of Confucianism and Taoism in ontology, as well as the formulation of the question of the origin of music. With the development of Confucianism and Taoism, a school of syncretism appeared, combining these directions and paying attention, among other things, to the origin of music.

1. Confucianism. In the final stage of the Chunqiu period, Confucius formulated the main ideas of Confucianism. However, in the context of musical ontology, the original Confucian theory of the relationship between human nature and emotions (?-?) was not developed by him. Confucius did not establish a direct connection between human nature and music as a means of expressing feelings. In his philosophical system, little attention is paid to the question of human nature, except for mention in the expression: "By nature, people are similar to each other, but they are different in habits" (""") ^[4].

In fact, the musical ontology of Confucianism was developed by Confucian scholars during the Zhanguo period ("The Period of the Fighting Kingdoms" 403-221 BC). Mengzi continued the theoretical development of the doctrine, and Xunzi supplemented and improved it. Before Confucius, musical philosophy was represented only by scattered quotations in literary sources. Confucius, explaining the importance of music in the work "Lun Yu" () and linking it with etiquette, emphasized its role in the life of various social strata, believing that music contributes to the formation of character. He called for moderation in music, pointing out that it should not contradict ethical norms. The systematization of musical and philosophical views initiated by Confucius marked significant progress in this field, although the emphasis was still on the connection of music with society, politics and morality, bypassing the analysis of the essence of music and its ways of existence. The works "Xing Ji Ming Chu" ()) and "Xing Qing Lun" (), created during the Zhanguo period, have unfortunately been lost.

Both considered works are similar in content and cover both expanded and supplemented aspects of Confucius' musical philosophy, in fact, they form a concept that can be defined as the "Confucian philosophy of music". The main focus of Confucius' philosophy lies in the field of musical values, and further developments in these books are related to the addition of the ontology of music. The content of both books is almost identical in the emphasis on the fact that music originates from human emotions. Emotions here act as catalysts for musical creativity, and musical art, in turn, becomes a form of expression of emotions. In early Confucian philosophy, the dominant view is that human nature causes an emotional reaction as a response to conditions or changes in the world around it. Music, according to this idea, requires harmony between human nature and emotions, which forms the basis of musical ontology ^{[5, pp. 69-71]}.

In the middle of the Zhanguo period, the thinker Mengzi emphasized the importance of music as an expression of human nature, suggesting the thesis: "People are similar in that, having the ability to hear, they find pleasure in the same sounds" ^[6]. Mengzi also argued that music not only expresses human emotions, but also brings joy, pointing to the increasing connection between music and emotions, where music can evoke emotional responses.

Xiunzi presented music as an integral manifestation of joy and human emotions, emphasizing that music is inseparable from man and is not only a way of expressing positive feelings, but also the key to happiness, being in harmony with human nature.

2. Taoism. In Taoism, the understanding of the nature of music is greatly deepened. His basic concept of "Tao", defined as "nothing", is perceived as a source of music that contributes to its transformation and manifestation of the natural in the artificial. "Tao" was originally interpreted as a "Path", but over time it expanded its meaning to include such concepts as "truth", "law", "ideal", "source". Tao plays an important role in fields such as cosmology, ontology, epistemology, and social policy. Before the emergence of the teachings of Lao Tzu, the theory of Yin-Yang and Wu-xing ("Five Elements" or "Five Elements") was widespread, explaining the world through the five basic elements. However, such a concept had its limitations in interpreting the infinite world and could not resist the idea of the absolute power of Heaven. Lao Tzu introduced the concept of "Tao" to move from a limited understanding of the origins of all things to an understanding of its boundlessness, enriching the philosophical thought of ancient China and elevating it to a new historical level.

In the introduction to the Tao Te Ching ("The Book of the Way and Dignity") Lao Tzu is clearly indicated: "The Tao that can be expressed in words is not the eternal Tao" ^[7], thus emphasizing the esotericity and mystery of the Tao. At the same time, the Tao continued to belong to the original, most fundamental metaphysical category. Lao Tzu believed that Tao has cosmological and ontological significance and is the source of all things, including earth and heaven. Lao Tzu also pointed out that Tao is characterized by the category "Y" (?) - "absence", "nothing". The philosophical doctrine of Tao stated that although everything that arises in the world belongs to the category of "Yu" - "presence", "Yu" itself is essentially identical to "Wu". These considerations are reflected in Lao Tzu's understanding of music: for example, the forty-first chapter of the Tao Te Ching says: "The greatest is impossible to understand: sound is elusive, image is formless" () " ^[7]. Here, a strong sound and a great image symbolize the Tao, and it is the music corresponding to the properties of the Tao that is the "strong sound". Lao Tzu further emphasizes that the absence of sound () represents ideal music, which in its dumbness and simplicity is the source of all other music. The musical ontology of the Tao, outlined by Lao Tzu, was developed and supplemented in the works of Chuang Tzu. He describes the "heavenly music" () thus: "Listening to her, you don't hear the sounds, trying to see her, you will not distinguish between the form; it fills heaven and earth, encompasses everything in the Universe" (•) ^[8].

Thus, any human music in its diverse manifestations is inherently limited. Measured by the infinity of the Tao, it does not meet the highest criteria of "heavenly music". The author suggests that Taoism values music devoid of traditional external sound; its significance lies in the ability to go beyond the outer sound layer, penetrate into the deep universe of music and understand its true essence.

3. Syncretism in Chinese philosophy is an eclectic trend that combines elements not only of Confucianism and Taoism, but also of other schools such as Moism and Legalism. The main works representing this philosophical trend are: "Liushi chunqiu" () and "Huainan Tzu" ().

In the treatise "Liushi chunqiu", the concept of "music" is introduced for the first time ^{[9, pp. 194-197]}, which is interpreted as a phenomenon arising at the junction of nature and the creative process, which in itself is art. From an ontological point of view, music is created in accordance with the principles of the harmonious functioning of the nature of the universe, while undergoing a complex process of transformation from a silent, Taoist manifestation to audible music. In "Liushi chunqiu" it is also stated that music originates in the hearts of people and establishes a connection between nature and human emotions, echoing the voice of nature and the voice of man. For the first time in history, the treatise "Liushi Chunqiu" raised the question of the relationship between music and the heart, emotions, and the origin of music, providing the basis for the synthesis of various philosophical concepts and the search for answers about the nature of music.

The Han Dynasty (202 BC–220 AD) was a period of relative reunification of ancient China, in which Confucianism acted as the dominant ideology. Music in this period already played a significant role in the perception of the rulers of the world, as it was assessed as the key to human interaction with the surrounding space, and was a central element in the concept of human harmony with the universe. The birth of the early musical and ideological monograph "Records of Music" in ancient China became the starting point for the final establishment of the ontology of Confucian music.

1. Confucianism. The main idea of "Music Recordings" is the statement that music originates from the inner state of a person and his nature. The outside world influences people, causing various emotions that eventually transform into music. Thus, music reflects a person's emotional response to external events, based on the heart. In the "Notes on Music", human feelings, intelligence and virtue are considered as innate, given by Heaven. Music in this context turns into an expression of the essence and nature of man. The treatise "Notes on Music" also raises the question of the origin of musical creativity, focusing on the inner world of man, where emotions play a key role. At the same time, it recognizes the importance of external factors in shaping music. However, a special place is given to the heart and its emotions. Thus, the musical ontology of "Music Records" retains its relevance due to its idealistic foundation. Having received recognition of Confucianism as the dominant philosophical school in the musical culture of ancient China, it can be concluded that the "Records of Music" to a certain extent became an analogue of the "bible" for traditional musical thought. The treatise served as a theoretical basis and a model of musical philosophy for all dynasties of China.

2. Taoism. One of the first Taoist musical theories in ancient China is considered to be the treatise "Taipingjing", which pays great attention to the ontological study of music. Within the framework of this theory, it is generally believed that music has roots in the concept of yin-yang; it is the language of Heaven and Earth, obeying the laws of Yin-Yang and Wu-Xing ("Five Elements"). Music corresponds to the seasons and months, reflecting various natural phenomena and contains information about everything that happens in the universe. "Taipingjing" also establishes rules for listening to music, permeated by Taoist religious worship ^{[10, pp. 10-12]}. Despite the fact that "Taipingjing" occupies an important place in the assessment of the ontology of music and influences the development of Taoist musical ontology, its main goal is to establish the conformity of music with the standards of Taoism expressed in the theory of Yin-Yang and Wu-Xing. The sounds and rhythms in music that create a unique musical order correspond to the cosmic order and obey the same principles.

3. Syncretism. This doctrine, formulated in the treatise "Huainan Tzu", which, in turn, develops on the basis of the ideas of "Liushi chunqiu", notes the important role of music in understanding the structure of the universe ^{[11, pp. 115-117]}. It is believed that the nature of music is rooted in the concepts of Yin-Yang and Wu-Xing, and sounds are a reflection of heaven and earth, the embodiment of all nature. Five musical notes correspond to the five elements:

- Metal – Re;

- Water – La;

- Tree – Mi;

- Fire is Salt;

- Earth – To.

Huainan Tzu has built a logical system for creating music, the laws of which are a reflection of nature and the cosmos. Music theory is divided into two directions, describing it as a phenomenon with ontological and social functions that develop independently of each other. The ontological function of music is presented above.  The social function is realized through the teaching of virtue to the people and the ordering of society by social strata.

Each social stratum has its own musical accompaniment:

- The emperor should always be accompanied by 64 musicians playing bells (bianzhong), of which there should be 4 sets, while ritual objects must be present: 9 ding – 9 bronze sacrificial tripods and 8 dui – 8 special ritual food vessels consisting of two bowls (where one covers the other), and also supported by three legs;

- The High Princes (Zhouhou) must be accompanied by 48 or 36 musicians with 3 sets of bells, 7 ding and 6 dui;

- The officials were accompanied by 32 or 16 musicians who played 2 sets of bells, 5 ding and 4 dui;

- Scientists (shi) relied on 1 set of bells, 16 or 4 musicians, 3 ding and 2 dui.

The treatise "Huainan Tzu" raises the question of the denial of sounding music in the context of an ontological function, giving preference to the Taoist principle formulated by Lao Tzu, which states: "the absence of sound is the root of all sounds" ^{[12, p. 11]}. In the social aspect, "Huainan Tzu", on the contrary, emphasizes the importance of sounding music for the formation of social order and morality, which corresponds to the beliefs of the Confucian school. Huainan Tzu combines the ideas of Confucianism and Taoism to create its own musical theory. The third article of the treatise states that the nature of music comes from five musical tones, comparing the energy of sounds with the energies of Heaven, earth and other natural phenomena. The book describes the process of creating music, supported by a coherent logical system, where the combination of yin and yang produces various types of energy – qi. As a result, the ideas of "Huainan Tzu", which were not widely spread at first, made a significant contribution to the development of Chinese musical theory by logically systematizing music and closely linking it with the mathematical calculations of the astronomical calendar of ancient China, dividing the year into 24 solar periods (2424 Jay Chi) ^[13].

The Wei and Jin Dynasty (220-420). The political chaos and corruption that engulfed the empire at the end of the Eastern Han Dynasty led to significant suffering among the population. By the time of the Wei Dynasty, the Confucian tradition was in decline, and the attention of scientists and thinkers shifted from moral issues to more mundane issues of survival and well-being. As a result, the synthesis of the ideas of Taoism and Confucianism began to prevail in Chinese philosophy of this period. In this context, the philosophy of music has focused on the study of its internal laws. The authors of such studies were thinkers such as Wang Bi, Ji Kang and Nguyen Ji. In his work "Summary of Lao Tzu's Thoughts" () Wang Bi put forward the idea that all types of sound music begin with the category "Y" (?) — "nothing", thereby unifying the origin of musical sounds. Its concept is based on the symbiosis of the concepts of "five sounds" () and "strong sound" () (or "Taoist sound"): a "strong sound" can only be heard when the five basic tones are sounded. This concept contributed to solving the problem of the relationship between the music of sounding and silent music of Taoism, serving as the basis for the theoretical unification of the ideas of Confucianism and Taoism. In the history of Chinese musical thought, the relationship between these two philosophies has shifted from antagonism to integration, made possible by Wang Bi's contributions. In the work "Huainan Tzu", the theory of five sounds is developed in detail, but here it is presented in the context of sounding music and serves as the basis for further dissemination of Lao Tzu's ideas about the relationship between "sound music" and "silent music".

Ji Kang's Theory of Sound Without Sorrow and Joy is the second famous monograph of Chinese musical thought, along with Notes on Music. Its importance in the history of Chinese musical ideas is undeniable. Based on the ontological principle of Tao, Ji Kang's theory refutes the Confucian point of view that music comes from human nature and emotions. Instead, the philosopher offers an understanding of music as an independent phenomenon that exists independently and has its own objective qualities that do not depend on personal emotions. Reflecting the inner emotions of a person, music, however, does not obey them, showing that there is no direct connection between music and emotions.

Ji Kang boldly opposed the simplistic equating of music with politics, ignoring the artistic component of music. Ji Kang also rejected the functions attributed to music of communicating with the gods and serving rituals and predictions, which had a very progressive meaning. He also drew attention to the contradiction between the beauty of the musical form, its real content and the perception of the listener – an aspect that his predecessors did not consider at all. This point of view was opposed to the Confucian ontology of music and contributed to the development of Taoist views.

In turn, Ruan Ji adhered to the Taoist point of view on the origin of music, having developed on its basis a number of additional requirements for music that contributed to the establishment of harmony both in nature and in society. Ruan Ji singled out the category of "Harmony" as the main criterion of music ^[14], which was supposed to ensure a balance between yin and yang and maintain social order.

Confucianism, in its own way, contributed to the establishment of order: the classically different requirements for listening to music formulated by it were aimed at strengthening the social hierarchy through musical activity. Music that did not comply with these standards was condemned. This teaching formed the basis of the Confucian category "Li" (?), meaning concepts such as decency, etiquette, ethics, ritual, ceremonies and establishing order and distinction between the highest and the lowest. Confucianism considered the rituals of "Li" as a measure for government and self-improvement, and Xunzi argued that they could be used to overcome lust.

This concept has smoothed out the contradictions between Confucianism and Taoism, which differ in their approaches to the issue of regulating life by etiquette. Despite the differences, both teachings recognized that human nature is inherently good and that "Li" is a rule born of the heart, and man strives to follow his nature.

During the Tang Dynasty (618-907), the development of the ontology of ancient Chinese music was closely linked to the historical features of this period. As a result of the wars, the people, more than ever, needed comfort and faith in a bright future. The emergence of Buddhism coincided with such sentiments, which gave people hope, allowed them to go beyond the limitations of life and death, get out of immersion in earthly suffering and find the meaning of their own existence. That is why Buddhism reached its apogee during the Tang Dynasty and marked the beginning of the co–existence of three philosophical movements - Confucianism, Taoism and Buddhism, which lasted until the beginning of the XX century, amounting to about 1600 years of history.

Buddhism (). Regarding the origin of the universe, Buddhism takes a position that denies materiality. The musical ontology of Buddhism is consonant with its philosophical ontology, arguing that the basis of music is "emptiness" (?) ^{[15, p. 95]}. The only document in the history of ancient Chinese music that positively outlined musical ontology is Lu Wen's work "Music Comes from the Void" (?)). Emptiness in this context is a spatial category, reminiscent of the presence of air in the resonator. The treatise "Music comes from the void" emphasizes three main concepts of musical ontology. Firstly, music arises from emptiness, just as everything is nothing, before its physical embodiment. This can be considered the highest principle of music. Music cannot be understood visually, because it has no visual image, but we perceive its image through hearing, because it manifests itself in sound moving through time. On the other hand, music does not occupy physical space and is formed in the human heart; only by turning on the imagination can one "see" and feel the musical image. Secondly, the paper explores the concept of the nature of music as "empty", subject to external factors. Music depends on a number of conditions: the material part – a musical instrument, and the "empty part" or its "resonator" filled with air. The absence of any of these components makes music impossible. Thirdly, Lu Wen notes a certain static and at the same time mobility of music, where static is manifested in the fact that the basic principles of musical culture remain unchanged, like an "empty" part of an instrument, and dynamism expresses the ability of music to change sounds and continuous development as an art form. Despite the fact that the ontology of "emptiness"  It had less influence on the development of Chinese musical philosophy compared to Confucianism and Taoism, its importance is enormous, since it is more abstract and objectively close to the philosophical category.

The neo-Confucian schools "Cheng Zhu Li Xue" and "Yang Ming Xin Xue", formed after the Tang Dynasty, did not make significant changes to the "musical ontology". Research at that time focused on musical aesthetics. The concept of Cheng Zhu, which arose during the Song Dynasty, proposed the unification of neo-Confucian, Taoist and Buddhist ideas to form the metaphysical basis of ethics and cosmology of Confucianism. The foundations of Yang Ming Xin Xue and the Buddhist ontology of the Ming Dynasty are similar, but the differences are mainly manifested in the moral and ethical aspect.

Yang Ming aesthetics is the aesthetics of genuine temperament and real experience, similar to Zen aesthetics, which is based on emotional experience and intuitive observation, helping to communicate with the world of people and objects. The aesthetics of the experience also has similar features. Wang Yangming argues that the truth is in the heart; everything in the world is reflected in the subject's heart. To comprehend the world, one must turn to the heart, perceive nature and morality with the heart, in order to realize the nature and morality that already exist and manifest themselves in human consciousness. This is how a person achieves spiritual freedom. In music, he recognizes its educational significance. He is convinced that music can change human hearts, and good music can improve public spirit. In musical axiology, he continues the traditions of Confucianism, and in musical aesthetics, his views largely coincide with Zen Buddhism.

Conclusion. Throughout China's long history, various philosophical schools have emerged, changed, and foreign philosophical concepts have been assimilated. Despite this, the theoretical basis of Chinese philosophy was mainly formed by the ideas of Confucianism, Taoism and Buddhism. Indian Buddhist ideas, although original, but the syncretism and metaphysics of Chinese philosophy, having no independent theoretical basis, developed solely on the basis of a synthesis of Confucian and Taoist teachings. Thus, the study of ancient Chinese musical culture should include, among other things, an analysis of the philosophical concepts of Confucianism, Taoism and Buddhism. The study of the philosophy of music through the prism of ancient Chinese philosophical traditions provides the formation of a specific understanding of musical culture, which manifests itself in three aspects:

- Tao, air and sound are the sources of music, contributing to its formation as a synthesis of artificial and natural;

- Sound and rhythm in music create a special musical order corresponding to the cosmic order and following the same patterns;

- The philosophical principles of Taoism and number theory are used for the ontological positioning of music, which allows us to find a metaphysical explanation of its significance.

Even in early Chinese representations, music was considered the main sign of the existence of the world, and its philosophical aspect was more important than the aesthetic one. Therefore, the study of ancient Chinese musical culture should go beyond the assessment of its aesthetics and include philosophical and cultural analysis in the context of a complex of ancient Chinese philosophical concepts.