Image and text: to the question of textual sources of typological parallelism in the Iconography of Western European Art of the XII century.

Sycheva Yuliya ORCID: 0000-0002-7835-4576 Postgraduate student of the Department of General Art History, Faculty of History, Lomonosov Moscow State University 119991, Russia, g. Moscow, Lomonosovskii prospekt, 27 k 4 yuliya.sycheva13@mail.ru Other publications by this author

Since its inception, the iconographic method as one of the research approaches aims not only to identify the pictorial motif, but also to identify its sources, both pictorial and textual in nature ^{[1, p. 57]}. Approaches to solving this problem were different: from a fairly linear attempt to unambiguously "decipher" the image by researchers of the XIX – beginning. XX century . (the most successful in this regard are the initiatives of E. Mal ^[2]) before postulating the variability and mobility of the semantic property of the image (in A. Grabar ^{[3, P. 201]}) and the need to take into account the complex system of connections of the image with other pictorial and non-pictorial sources, with practices involving interaction with the image (J. Bashe ^{[4, P. 165]}, etc.). Without delving into the specifics and history of the method within the framework of this article, we note that with all the variety of approaches, a comprehensive iconographic analysis is impossible without referring to textual sources.

The iconographic trend that has become the object of this study is the intensification of interest in typological parallelism in the selection and organization of subjects within the visual cycle. The emphasis on the educational role of episodes of Old Testament history in pictorial cycles can be recorded already in early Christian art, but it is on the example of monuments of the XII century that we can talk about qualitative and quantitative changes within this iconographic tradition. Typological programs of this period (in comparison with the monuments of the IV–XI centuries) are more numerous, and the parallelism of the Testaments as a fundamental principle of the organization of plots is more articulated (due to the stable circle of prototypes and the system of their placement in the pictorial cycle).

The process of forming a stable circle of prototype plots proceeded in parallel with the creation and dissemination of theological, preaching and liturgical texts, in which, according to H. Buschhausen's apt remark, "direct doxology begins to be replaced by typology" ^{[5, P. 14]}. Our article is devoted to the attempt to establish a connection between these trends.

Turning to the historiography of the problem, it should be noted that there are a number of studies in which an attempt is made to identify textual sources of individual monuments or groups of monuments of the XII century. In this context, it is necessary to mention H. Buschhausen's research on the Klosternoburg altar, where for the first time some iconographic solutions were compared with typological parallels derived in the sequences of Adam St. Victor ^[5-7], as well as N. Stratford's research on the three English tabernacles and the connection of their iconography with the lines used in the decoration of the chapter hall in Worcester - these inscriptions they form a poetic text written in Leonine verse (Worcester Cathedral Chapter Library Ms. F 81); the British researcher notes the closeness of the style of these lines to the poetic texts of the beginning of the XII century, which are attributed to Hildebert Lavardinsky ^{[8, P. 214]}.

In addition to individual attempts to present textual interpretations of iconographic programs of specific monuments, there are also works that cite a number of sources claiming to be an exhaustive interpretation of the entire iconographic compendium of a large group of monuments: for example, E. Mal, interpreting the pictorial cycle decorating the French Gothic cathedrals of the XIII century, proposed to rely on a significantly small list of textual sources that were distributed in the epoch under consideration ("Glossa ordinaria", "Rationale divinum officiorum" by Guillaume Durand, "Speculum Ecclesiae" by Honorius Augustodunsky, "Historia Scolastica" by Peter Komestor, "The Golden Legend" by Jacob Voraginsky, "The Great Mirror" by Vincent of Beauvais, "The Sum of theology" by Thomas Aquinas) ^{[2, p. 31]}. Despite some errors in attribution of individual texts and motifs (some will be covered later), Mal's work still remains the foundation for this kind of research.

Let us turn to the range of sources that could inspire an increase in interest in typological parallelism in the XII century.

This review cannot be limited only to the works of the XII century, since it is impossible to deny the influence of other, earlier, sources. It should be noted that the very principle of allegorical interpretation of parts of the Bible text is not an exceptional achievement of the exegesis of Christian apologists, before them Philo of Alexandria, one of the most significant representatives of early Judaic hermeneutics, interpreted the text of the Old Testament in an allegorical way. Philo distinguished two levels of interpretation of the Old Testament text: literal and allegorical ^{[9, pp. 71-79]}. Christian exegesis adds two more levels to the historical and allegorical: the tropological and the anagogic ^[10]. The principle of dividing the interpretation of the Biblical text into four levels has already been formulated by John Cassian, this exegetic method of multilevel reading of the text was consistently explained by Rabanus Moor in the IX century, then it becomes a common place in Western European theology.

The second level of interpretation, allegorical, is associated with the interpretation of the plots and prophecies of the Old Testament as prototypes of the gospel events. This method of interpretation is called "typology". Typological exegesis postulates two important principles: the continuity of the New Testament from the Old, as well as its superiority (the New Testament reveals the truths hidden by the Old).

The idea of the prophetic meaning of the Old Testament is formulated in the Gospel text itself. The principle of Covenant Reconciliation is formulated in the phrase: "Do not think that I have come to break the law or the prophets: I have not come to break, but to fulfill" [Matthew 4:17]. Quotations from the Gospel postulating the typological relationship of the Covenants can be divided into two types. The first contains an indication that the events of the New Testament had already been predicted by the prophets of the Old Testament: "And all that was written through the prophets about the Son of Man will be accomplished" [Luke 18:31]. The second type is an indication of the events of the Old Testament themselves, which are perceived as prototypes of the New Testament history.: "For as Jonah was in the belly of the whale for three days and three nights, so the Son of Man will be in the heart of the earth for three days and three nights" [Matthew 12:40], "And as Moses lifted up the serpent in the wilderness, so the Son of Man must be lifted up" [John 3:14].

In the II–IV centuries, the typological principle underlies many polemical works directed against Jews and Gnostics ^{[10, p. 10]}. The allegorical understanding of the events of the Old Testament becomes an argument in the Judeo-Christian polemic. For example, in the "Dialogue with Tryphon the Jew" recorded around 160, Justin the Philosopher states the following: "Such a teaching was not composed by me and it was not decorated by human art, but David sang it, Isaiah evangelized, Zachariah preached, Moses wrote it. Do you know him, Trifon? It is in your writings, or better, not in yours, but in ours, because we believe them, and you read and do not understand their meaning" ^[11].

The typological principle is then reflected in the most widespread type of exegesis in the first centuries – homilies. Thus, Origen, in Homilies on the Book of Genesis, comments on the first line of the Holy Scripture as follows ("In the beginning God created heaven and earth"): "Here we are not talking about some temporary beginning; but it is said that heaven and earth and all created things were created in the Beginning, that is, in the Savior" ^{[12, p. 65]}. It is also important to note that Origen's allegorical interpretation of the Old Testament appears in the form of an established system, he distinguishes three levels of meaning in Scripture – literal, moral and spiritual ^{[2, p. 205]}.

Ambrose of Mediolansky and Jerome of Stridon adhere to the same logic in their comments. The first one in the Epistles writes about the dove [Gen. 8:8-11]: "The synagogue does not have this oil, because it does not have an olive tree and does not understand what kind of dove it is that brought the olive branch after the flood. And this dove then descended on Christ during baptism and stayed on Him" ^[13]. This interpretation underlies the correlation of the events of the Flood with Baptism, as well as with the Descent of the Holy Spirit on the apostles (for example, in the Klosterneuburg altar, created in 1181 by Nicholas of Verdun). St. Jerome also writes about the Holy Spirit as a symbol of baptism: "The words: The Spirit of God was carried over the water, according to spiritual understanding, already at that time meant baptism. For baptism was impossible without the Holy Spirit" ^[14].

St. Ambrose's disciple, St. Augustine, was able to summarize the principle of Covenant Reconciliation most clearly. In the "Questions on the Seven Books" he deduces the formula "In veteri testament novum latet, in novo vetus patet" ("The New Testament is hidden in the Old, and the Old is found in the New") ^[15]. We find similar lines in his fundamental essay "On the City of God": "Everything bears the stamp of novelty, and the Old Testament overshadows the New. For what is called the Old Testament but the covering of the New, and what is New but the revelation of the Old?" ^[16]. In addition to the generalizing formulation, numerous interpretations have come from Augustine, which are based on the typological principle. Thus, in "About the City of God", Noah's Ark becomes the prototype of Christ on the Cross, and the sacrifice of Abraham precedes the sacrifice of Christ. The Sacrifice of Abraham and the Crucifixion are a typological pair that will be one of the first to penetrate into iconography. The allegorical method is also used by Gregory the Great in his Commentary on the Book of Job. Thus, in the first centuries of Christianity, a system of symbolic prototypes began to form.

Isidore of Seville summed up all the comments of the fathers of the Church, who left a kind of collection of interpretations. In the "Allegories of Holy Scripture" (another name is "On the Names of the Law and the Gospel") He gives typological interpretations for the characters mentioned in the Holy Scriptures. In another work, "Questions on the Old Testament" ("Exposition of mysterious Meanings"), the object of research is the events of the Old Testament, which Isidore interprets from the point of view of their involvement in the New Testament as prototypes.

Subsequent works of medieval authors (VII–XII centuries) largely rely on the compendium formed by Isidore, and add little to this doctrine ^{[2, p. 211]}. Changes occur in the field of form – for example, the distribution of the text Glossa Ordinaria, which for a long time was attributed to Valafrid Strabo, dates back to the IX century (this error is found in E. Mal) [Ibid.]. The "Ordinary Gloss" is a kind of textbook of biblical commentaries. This type of book developed throughout the Middle Ages. In the second half of the XI century. the idea of creating a set of glosses for all parts of the Bible appeared, in the XI–XII centuries. the most famous creators of glosses were Anselm of Lansky, Gilbert of Porretan and Peter of Lombardy. In the manuscripts of the Glossa Ordinaria, the text of the Holy Scripture is presented in the middle of the page, it is surrounded by glosses of interpretation ^[17-18], most of them are comments "borrowed" from the works of Origen, Ambrose, Jerome, Augustine, Cassiodorus, Venerable Bede, Alcuin, Rabanus the Moor, John Scotus Eriugena, etc. Comments can reflect the allegorical connection of the Old and New Testaments, as well as interpret the "tropological" and "anagogic" meaning of scripture. "Glossa Ordinaria" enjoyed exceptional popularity in the XI–XIII centuries and practically supplanted other types of commentaries. This textbook of interpretation was available in many monastic libraries, and it is quite logical to assume that this text could be used in the compilation of iconographic programs ^{[2, p. 211]}.

As noted above, the XII century was marked by an increasing interest in typology and the formation of complex iconographic programs by the turn of the XII and XIII centuries, based on the typological method (the Klosterneuburg altar, typological stained glass cycles in Canterbury in other cathedrals). The sources of typological programs in the XII century, apparently, use biblical commentaries (collected in the "Gloss Ordinaria"), as well as bestiaries and "Physiologist", from which examples of symbolic correlation of the New Testament plot with the specific features of certain animals are borrowed (for example, a lion animating lion cubs with breath, as an allegorical interpretation of the plot Resurrections in the Frontispieces to the Gospel of Mark in the Floreff Bible (ca. 1150-1170 Royal Library, Brussels, Ms. 10527) and the Gospels from Averbod (ca. 1150-1170 University Library, Liege, Ms. 363) ^{[19, P. 132-134]}). However, the developed typological programs of the monuments of the XII century also reflect the influence of texts that appeared in the XII century, and well illustrate the growing importance of the typological method of interpretation.

Among the authors of the first third of the XII century, Rupert of Deutz (c. 1075-1129), abbot of the Benedictine monastery of St. Mary and St. Heribert in Deutz in 1120-1129 should be mentioned. Rupert was brought up and took monastic orders at the Abbey of St. Lawrence in Liege ^{[20, P. 203-204]}. The theologian's life path is connected with the major centers of the Rhineland-Meuse region, and the time of his life falls on the period of the creation of the first art monuments of this territory, illustrating the interest in typological constructions. In his writings, of which the key ones are "On the Holy Trinity and its Creations" ("De Sancta Trinitate et operibus eius") and "Commentaries on the Gospel of John" ("Commentaria in Evangelium Sancti Iohannis"), Rupert interprets some events of sacred history in a typological way. For example, he was one of the first to suggest interpreting the text of the "Song of Songs" in relation to the images of Christ and the Church ^{[21, P. 441]}. The theologian also interprets some images from the visions of the prophets, for example, the key for typology motif of two wheels from the prophecy of Ezekiel ("Rota in medio rotae") [Ezek. 1:16] ^{[22, col. 1433]}, this image is found in the Maas manuscript of a later time, the Floreff Bible, already mentioned above.

A study on the influence of Rupert's theology on works of fine art in 1930 was undertaken by E. Baitz ^[23]. The author connects the spread of the iconographic type "Throne of Grace" with the trinitarian concept developed by Abbot Rupert, and also notes its influence on the Font of Liege (between 1107 and 1118, St. Bartholomew Church, Liege), one of the earliest monuments of the Rhenish-Meuse tradition, illustrating the interest in typological parallelism, and the censer with the image of three youths from the Museum in Lille (circa 1160-1165, Palace of Fine Arts, Lille). Among the masters of the XII century, whose works embodied the ideas of the Deutsch theologian, Baitz names Rogier from Helmarshausen, Godefroy Clare (aka Godefroy from Huy) and Frederick from Cologne.

The position of the special significance of the role of Rupert Deutsky for the iconography of the Rhine-Meuse monuments of the XII century is not supported by all researchers and remains controversial ^{[24, p. 730]}. Despite the parallelism of some themes in the monuments of decorative and applied art and book miniatures and in the writings of Rupert, there are no sources that allow us to establish the fact of the use of his works in the compilation of iconographic programs. However, a possible evidence in favor of this assumption can be considered that Rupert's pupil at the Abbey of Saint Laurent in Liege was Vibald of Stavelot (1098-1158), who later became abbot in Stavelot and Corvey and was the customer of works of decorative and applied art and the retable of St. Remakl. Thus, one of the most significant works of Meuse art, a portable altar from Stavlo, is associated with the order of Wibald, in the iconographic program of which a number of Old Testament prototypes of the Crucifixion and Resurrection are derived (c. 1150-1158 or c. 1160, Royal Museums of Art and History, Brussels). It should also be noted that the ideas of Rupert Deutsky influenced Honorius Augustodunsky ^{[25, P. 148]}, another theologian of the XII century, to whom it is advisable to refer in this context.

A. Springer was the first to draw attention to the influence of Honorius in the field of fine art ^{[26, C. 69]} in his 1879 article. Then E. Mal, in his fundamental work on French art of the XIII century, cites Honorius' sermons collected in the collection "The Mirror of the Church" ("Speculum Ecclesiae") as one of the fundamental works for "deciphering" medieval images ^{[2, C. 13]}. In favor of such a correlation is not only the extreme popularity of the works of this theologian, but also the simplicity of presentation. Thus, in the sermon on the Annunciation, Honorius consistently lists a number of Old Testament prefigurations: the Burning Bush, the Rod of Aaron, the Fleece of Gideon, the Locked Gates of Ezekiel [Ibid., p. 222]. The plots cited by Honorius of Augustodun are found in the iconographic programs of the XII century (in the Evangelarium from Averbod, in the Stammheim Missal (Hildeisheim, 1170s Getty Field Museum, Los Angeles, MS. 64), in the inscription on the relief with the Madonna from the Curtius Museum). By themselves, the types mentioned by Honorius are quite well known: the appeal to the Old Testament Mariological prefigurations is characteristic of Byzantine liturgical texts of the VIII century and later ^{[27, P. 41-43]}. The influence of Honorius' work on Western European pictorial programs can be explained by the accessibility of the text and a set of easily identifiable Old Testament prototypes. In the collection of sermons of the theologian-encyclopedist, there are not only Old Testament types, for example, in the Easter sermon he cites as prototypes of the Resurrection of a lion, resurrecting his stillborn cubs with his breath, a pelican tearing his chest to feed the chicks, and a phoenix ^{[28, Col. 936]}. Thus, relying on the work of Honorius, the compiler of the iconographic program could draw not only Old Testament prefigurations, but also images whose symbolic likeness comes from the "Physiologist".

The typological principle of interpretation is not only manifested in sermons and exegetical commentaries, but is also comprehended in theosophical treatises. Thus, Joachim Florsky, an Italian philosopher and author of the work "The Reconciliation of the Old and New Testaments" ("Concordatio veteris ac novi testamenti"), formulates the concept of three stages, stages of the existence of the world, these stages correspond to the three hypostases of God. God the Father rules in the first epoch (the Old Testament), then the wisdom hidden before is revealed through the Son, and the third stage is the Kingdom of the Holy Spirit ^{[29, p. 508]}.

The treatise of Joachim Florsky, which is difficult to interpret, cannot be considered as a direct source of iconographic programs, but it illustrates the intensification of interest in typological interpretation in the XII century. The possibility of interpreting some subjects through the prism of others, revealing the true meaning, according to Joachim, is connected with the principle of similarity: "namely, that when a person and a person, class and estate, war and war are considered based on a certain equality of common features for them; for example, Abraham and Zachariah, Sarah and Elizabeth, Isaac and John The Baptist" [Ibid., p. 509]. 

Allegorical interpretation also underlies some of the writings of Hugo of Saint Victor. The head of the Saint Victor school sought in his writings to create a harmonious union of mystical and scholastic theology [Ibid., p. 295], he identifies three levels of comprehension of the biblical text: historical, allegorical and tropological ^{[30, p. 400]}. Hugo's writings also reflect the idea of the symbolic nature of the Mass that was finally formed in the XII century ^{[7, P. 125]}. In the treatise "On the Sacraments of the Christian Faith" ("De sacramentis Christianae fidei"), the theologian emphasizes the symbolic parallelism of the Jewish rites described in the Old Testament and the Christian sacraments ^{[31, p. 92]}. In the same text, the head of the Saint Victor School, following Augustine, formulates the idea of dividing the history of Salvation into three stages: the epochs of natural law (tempus naturalis legis), written law (tempus scriptae legis) and grace (tempus gratiae). This principle will form the basis of the iconographic program of the Cloisterneuburg altar.

Another important author also comes from the Saint Victor school, Adam of Saint Victor, the compiler of sequences and hymns in which a typological series of prototypes is used. Thus, the educational meaning of the Old Testament events is not only commented on in sermons and comprehended in theological writings, but also reflected in liturgical texts.

The Aaron's Rod mentioned in Honorius of Augustodun is found in Adam of Saint Victor in the sequence "De Nativitate Domini" ("Splendor patris et figura"). The prototype from the Book of Numbers immediately receives the following interpretation from Adam: "Frondem, florem, nucem sicca / Virga profert et pudica / Virgo Dei filium ..." – "Leaves, Flower, Nut dry / Branch brings, and Chaste / Virgin – the Son of God..." ^{[32, C. 198]}.

In the sixth Paschal sequence ("Zyma vetus expurgetur"), Adam of Saint Victor cites as prototypes of the Resurrection of Joseph, coming out of the well, the Lion from the tribe of Judah, the story of Jonah, Samson with the gates of Gaza, as well as the Catching of Leviathan, plots that often appear in typological cycles of the XII century (Stained glass windows in Chalon-sur-Marne, Alton Towers triptych (c. 1150, Victoria and Albert Museum, London, No. 4757-1858), Klosterneuburg Altarpiece). In the same poetic work, the author formulates a concise formula expressing the relationship of the Covenants: "Lex est umbra futurorum" ("The law is the shadow of the future").

 In the first Easter sequence ("Ecce, dies celebris"), other plots are used: Samson with a lion (which is accompanied by the explanatory words "Samson Christum figuravit" ("Samson "forms" Christ), as well as David striking a lion. Typological pairs also appear in the sequences dedicated to the Crucifixion, for example "Laudes crucis attolamus".

Continuing the theme of liturgical texts, it should be noted that the texts included in the canon of the mass and other texts of the services could serve as sources for creating a typological program of the Klosterneuburg altar and other monuments related to the sacrament of the liturgy. Thus, the Ascension of Enoch and the Ascension of Elijah as Old Testament prototypes of the Ascension of Christ are mentioned in the 29 homily of Gregory the Great, which is read in the Octave of the feast of the Ascension ^{[5, P.11]}. These two subjects act as Old Testament prefigurations in the Klosterneuburg altar and in the Stammsheim Missal. Note that as a possible prototype for the Ascension of Christ, the Ascension of Elijah appears already in the 5th century in the decoration of the wooden doors of the church of Santa Sabina.

The development of texts related to typological logic is summed up by the treatise "Pictor in Carmine" created around 1200, attributed to the English Cistercian abbot ^[33]. The text contains 138 chapters, each of which is devoted to the New Testament antithype and a set of its Old Testament prefigurations. "Pictor in carmine" is a type of book that we did not meet in the previous review. A clear system of correspondences of types and antitypes, each of which is accompanied by several lines of poetry, suggests that the text was created as a kind of "instruction" for artists. The influence of this text is evident in the English monuments of the beginning of the XIII century . (for example, the cycle of typological stained glass windows in Canterbury) [Ibid].

So, in this article we have tried to outline a circle of texts that could be familiar to the compilers of iconographic programs in the XII century. Without going into detail into the characteristics of the concept of various authors, we have given only those aspects of their writings that are related to the implementation of typological logic. Further analysis of the texts will allow to expand this list and, possibly, to trace the ways of distribution of texts and to establish the possibility of acquaintance with them by clerics who could participate in the creation of iconographic programs of monuments of fine art.