Characteristics of the image and decor of stone lions in the ancient Chinese subject-spatial environment

Van Fan PhD in Art History Department of Art Theory and History, Moscow Pedagogical State University 109052, Russia, Moscow region, Moscow, Ryazan str., 9, office 3 wangfang@internet.ru Other publications by this author

IntroductionThe Chinese have long considered lions favorable animals.

In various subject-spatial environments of ancient China, for example, in imperial palaces, temples, tombs and residential buildings, various images of stone lions can be seen everywhere. The stone used in the creation of lions is a frequently used material in traditional Chinese architecture, and is also an integral and important part of ancient Chinese architectural decor. The study of stone lions presents a unique perspective for the study of the influence of cultural, economic and political factors on the spiritual life of the Chinese.

Western and Chinese literature is directly devoted to the study of Chinese stone lions, mainly explores the stone lion as a separate object, and not in a subject-spatial environment. Western and Chinese literature is also devoted to the study of stone lions in the same subject-spatial environment as Buddhist buildings and the mausoleum space. From these sources, it can be traced that previous studies do not systematically analyze the general characteristics and symbolic meanings of stone lions in different ancient Chinese subject-spatial environment. 

This article reveals the symbolic meaning of the stone lion in different ancient Chinese subject-spatial environment. The first part explores the historical interaction of the evolution of the symbolic meaning of the stone lion and the changes in the characteristics of its image over a long time range covering each Chinese historical epoch. In the second part, the characteristics of the images of stone lions bearing specific symbolic meanings in the corresponding subject-spatial environment are considered. In conclusion, the symbolic meanings of the stone lion are summarized. The article uses such scientific methods as analysis, comparison and induction. The selection of stone lions is based on the choice of the physical location of stone lions, - significant historical buildings of certain Chinese dynasties, for example, famous temples, imperial palaces. The novelty of this article lies in the systematic generalization of the symbolic meanings of the stone lion in different ancient Chinese subject-spatial environment. This study provides a more complete picture of the significance of the ancient Chinese stone lion in the subject-spatial environment and its historical evolution compared to similar studies.

AnalysisLions did not originally live in China, but inhabited Africa, India and other regions.

 During the reign of Emperor Wu of the Han Dynasty, Zhang Qian was sent to the west and began communication between China and some countries of today's central and western Asia, so that lions could appear in China. According to the Book of the Late Han Dynasty: A Biography of the Western Regions, in 87 AD the Parthian Kingdom sent envoys to present a lion to the emperor of China, Liu Huang. Therefore, it is believed that this is the earliest time of the appearance of lions in China. Since then, lions have entered Chinese folk life. After the Chinese saw the real lion, they were attracted by his incomparably mighty image, and they began to consider him an auspicious beast. In addition, another reason for the adoption of lions in China was the introduction of Buddhism to China during the Han Dynasty ^{[1, p.138]}. Buddhists worship the lion as an auspicious animal. Many temples of Buddhist sacred mountains in China have statues of Manjushri [in Buddhism, Manjushri is the guide and teacher of the Buddhas of the past, the spiritual father of bodhisattvas] riding a lion.

From people worshipping lions, they soon became the subject of Chinese sculpture. The artistic image of lions has always been based on stone carving and has evolved and developed over time. The image of stone lions is different in each dynasty of China, but it was mostly refined before the Qing Dynasty, and it was also diverse in different regions of China, for example, in the south and north. Various artistic images of stone lions were closely connected with the political and economic environment, the cultural atmosphere of the regions where they were created.

1. The evolution of the image of the stone lion in different dynasties of China The carved stone lions of the "Eastern Han" dynasty were often mixed with the sculptor's own imagination during the formation process, and there was a certain gap between them and the real lions.

From the point of view of the image, the stone lions of the "Eastern Han" dynasty are mainly divided into two types: "S" and "L", among which there are more "S" images, and most of the "S" are vertical (Fig. 1). The "L" image can be both vertical and horizontal ^{[2, p.109]}. From the point of view of integrity, the ability to cut from the nature of a lion at that time reached a relatively high level. Lion carving often relies on the original shape of the stone and uses an axe to cut down key points, demonstrating a strong sense of integrity and simple artistic style.

Figure 1. Stone Lion of the Eastern Han DynastySource: Collection of the Shandong Museum

During the period of the "southern and northern dynasties" regimes often changed, but at the same time, due to the long wars, the flourishing of metaphysics, the widespread spread of Buddhism, the influence of Taoism and communication between Chinese and Western cultures, Chinese culture in this period showed a tendency to diversify and stone lions also flourished.

During this period, stone lions were no longer limited to the architecture of the mausoleum, but were involved in other aspects. For example, during the "southern dynasties" in traditional mausoleums there were mainly stone lions of mausoleums, during the "northern dynasties", due to the development of Buddhism, there were mainly Buddhist stone lions.

Compared to the "Eastern Han Dynasty", the stone lions of the "southern dynasties" pay more attention to the "similarity of form" and mainly use the prototype of the lion as a reference, and the volume is increased, powerful and ferocious to better reflect its grave power. From the spread of Buddhism, stone lions in the "Northern Dynasties" mostly appeared in grottoes and stone steles, and there were very few stone lions on both sides of the road in front of the mausoleum. Stone lions in mausoleums and Buddhist stone lions belong to two different modeling systems. There are differences between two different stone lions in terms of function, shape or decoration.

The "Tang Dynasty" was the heyday of stone lion carving, and the images of stone lions can still also be divided into two systems: stone lions of the mausoleum and Buddhist stone lions. At the beginning of the "Tang Dynasty" stone lions inherited the traditional style and technique of carving from the time of the "Northern and Southern Dynasties", but have not yet formed their own characteristics of carving during the "Tang Dynasty" ^{[3, p.46]}. In the middle of the "Tang Dynasty", the typical style of stone lions of that time was formed, and mostly majestic sitting stone lions. The carving technique has become more developed, and the detailed description has been strengthened. Stone lions at the end of the "Tang Dynasty" became rougher and weaker in shape, gradually losing their majestic appearance.

In terms of overall shape, the stone lions of the "Tang Dynasty" are larger in size, and there is a difference between walking lions and squatting lions. The movement of the walking lion becomes smoother and gradually turns into a stationary state, and the image becomes more rounded and complete. The forelimbs of the squatting lion gradually retracted together with the body leaning forward, and the lion's head became larger and larger, which is almost one-third of the total volume. The transition from the expression of sticking out the tongue to showing teeth has become an obvious symbol of the Chinese stone lion (Fig.2).

Figure 2. Walking stone lions in the mausoleum of Zhaolin, Tang Dynasty. located in Liquan, Shaanxi province.

A source: http://www.mastersart.org/index.php?m=content&c=index&a=show&catid=172&id=4306

In the Song Dynasty, the majestic style of stone lions of the Tang Dynasty gradually disappeared, replaced by docile and introverted style characteristics, and gradually moved from stone lions of the mausoleum to protected residential stone lions and began to move from royal official residences to the residences of the people, showing secular features.

The shape of stone lions in the Song Dynasty is more realistic than in the Tang Dynasty, and the image of stone lions is closer to real lions. The outlines of the body and limbs are still slightly exaggerated, but the basic proportions are accurate, and the structure is strict. A typical feature that differs from previous dynasties is that stone lions are currently more decorative, collars, bells, ribbons and other ornaments are carved on stone lions to make them more interesting in life (Fig.3). This phenomenon also indicates a more secular development of stone lion modeling at that time. 

Figure 3. Stone lions in the mausoleum of the Song Dynasty. located in Gong, Henan province.

A source: https://www.163.com/dy/article/H2G05RCA05417BW5.html

During the Yuan Dynasty, stone lions were not found in the tombs of the emperors, but some typical features of stone lions of that time can mainly be found in some folk remains of stone lions. From the Han Dynasty to the Tang and Song dynasties and even the Ming and Qing dynasties, the male lion was on the left and the female lion was on the right. In the Yuan Dynasty, it was the opposite, the male lion was on the right, and the female lion was on the left. This is because the Yuan Dynasty worship the right side ^{[4, p.71]}.  In addition, most stone lions of the Yuan Dynasty had no hair on their heads, and the hair mostly started from the back of the head, either scattered or had the shape of a shell, similar to the hairstyles of people of the Yuan Dynasty. The backs of stone lions were carved differently than those of the strong and plump lions of the previous dynasty (Fig.4). Instead of the image of the previous dynasty, the bones stood out on the back. With protruding muscles and bones, stone lions feel powerful and this phenomenon is associated with the people of the Yuan Dynasty.

Figure 4. Stone lions in front of the Dajue Temple of the Yuan Dynasty are located in the Baita Si Temple (Miaoyin Temple) in Beijing.Source: Beijing Newspaper

During the Ming and Qing dynasties, the shape of stone lions became an important part of the gatehouse decoration and garden decoration.

The range of use of the stone lion has been increased. For example, stone lions are displayed in palaces, cemeteries, pagodas, temples and residences. The shape of stone lions is more complex and completely stylized, and its positions, image characteristics and meanings are mostly unified ^{[5, p.48]}. Squatting stone lions were popular at that time, but walking stone lions were rare. The image of the stone lion has become worthy and honest, gentle and compliant, has lost its former power. The overall proportions have become more uniform, and the drawing of details has increased, for example, images of muscle undulations have appeared on the limbs. The decoration on the lion's body has increased even more, and in accordance with its various functions of displaying the ranks of the hierarchy, there are court stone lions and folk stone lions. The former is distinguished by exquisite craftsmanship and magnificent decor, while the latter is simple and natural, full of the breath of life (Fig.5).Figure 5. Stone lions of the Qing Dynasty in front of Prince Gong's mansion in Beijing.

Source: Chinese Intangible Cultural Heritage Website

From the evolution of the shape of stone lions in past dynasties, we can see that the shape of early stone lions was more realistic, emphasizing its mighty and majestic characteristics. After the Song and Yuan dynasties, with the gradual strengthening of centralization, the characteristics of decoration and obedience in the form of stone lions became more and more obvious. During the Ming and Qing dynasties, his docile form completely replaced the former mighty and majestic features. This phenomenon shows that the evolution of the shape of ancient stone lions changes over time, and the reason for the change in the law is inseparable from the social and cultural customs of that time.2. The image of a stone lion in a different subject-spatial environment in ancient China

In ancient Chinese subject-spatial environments, stone lions can be seen everywhere. After the master's work, his image gradually changed from the initial simulation to many different styles. Stone lions of different images are placed in different environments, such as temples, Buddhist halls, tombs, palaces and residential buildings.

2.1 The stone lion in the space of religious buildings  Stone lions in the temples of Mount Wutaishan 

Mount Wutaishan is one of the four sacred mountains of Buddhism in China.

More than 200 stone lions have been preserved in more than 70 temples of Mount Wutaishan from ancient times to the present day. Stone lions stand in front of each temple, and they serve as decorations of buildings. These bright stone lions with various expressions not only demonstrate greatness and sacred spirit, but also play a decorative role, have high artistic and cultural value and are an important part of the Buddhist sculptural art of Mount Wutaishan. Being an indispensable traditional architectural decoration of Buddhist temples on Mount Wutaishan, stone lions form a harmonious construction group with other buildings in the temple, giving impetus to solemn and majestic temple buildings, enriching the space and revitalizing the atmosphere of the environment ^{[6, p.34]} (Fig.6).

Figure 6. Stone lions in the Puhua Temple in Mount Wutaishan. Wutai, Shanxi Province.

A source: https://baike.baidu.com/item/Õðàì Puhua/69490

Stone Lions in Yungang GrottoesIn Shanxi province, the famous Yungang cave grottoes [referring to royal temples excavated by the royal family of the Northern Wei dynasty] have a large number of Buddhist stone statues, among which stone lions are usually carved on both sides of statues of Buddha Maitreya [Bodhisattva and Buddha of the future, who will appear at the end of this kalpa from heaven Tushita, where it is believed to be in the present.

In Far Eastern Buddhism, he is one of the most popular bodhisattvas and is associated with the future era of prosperity and bliss]. For example, in the early excavated five Tang Yao Caves [cave order number No. 16-20] and caves No. 7-13, you can find their docile and comely images next to the Maitreya Buddha. Stone lions are also found in other grottoes excavated at a later period, such as the eastern wall of cave No. 21 ^{[7, p.33]}. A common feature of stone lions from Yungang grottoes is that they have a small size and a square and large mouth, which accounts for almost half of the face. The forehead and ears are small, and the males and females of stone lions do not have a mane in the shape of a shell on the cheeks and back of the head, they look obedient, demonstrating a cute state after taming. From an artistic point of view, we can see that the smaller stone lions well set off the majesty of the statue of Buddha Maitreya, thereby creating a sense of boundless Dharma.

Stone Lions in Longmen Grottoes When it comes to the art of stone carving in the Longmen grottoes [a complex of Buddhist cave temples in the Chinese province of Henan], one naturally remembers the exquisite bodhisattva statues and the solemn image of the Buddha Lushen.

Stone lions are also indispensable in Longmen grottoes. There are stone lions under the main Buddha in the caves of Guyang and Binyang. Almost a thousand stone lions live in all Longmen grottoes. There are more than 200 similar works in Guyang Cave alone. According to the carvings of ancient masters, some of them became protectors before the Buddha, some became Bodhisattva steeds, and some were independent. But in the Tang dynasty, after the appearance of the King-defender of the Dharma, the status of the stone lion-defender of the Dharma declined and even disappeared (Fig. 7). For thousands of years, a large number of stone lions in the Longmen grottoes have been combined with the Buddha statues in the cave, becoming an important part of the art of the Longmen grottoes.

Figure 7. Stone lions in the Binyan Cave of the Northern Wei Dynasty in the Longmen grottoes. located in Luoyang City, Henan Province.

A source: https://www.sohu.com/a/236663777_154879

2.2 Stone lion in the mausoleum spaceIn the tombs of ancient emperors and nobles there are specially installed stone sculptures, which are collectively called sculptures based on the stone of the mausoleum.

The lion is one of the images of animals in the mausoleum. By the Eastern Han Dynasty, there were certain rules for the selection and arrangement of stone animals. Stone animals often placed in the mausoleum space include lions, tigers, horses, cattle, sheep, elephants, etc. The most famous relic is a group of stone statues from the tombstone of Huo Qubing [an outstanding general of the Han Dynasty], which can be called an important milestone in the history of Chinese sculpture. Fourteen stone statues were found, including a standing horse, a lying horse, a lying tiger, a lying elephant, etc., but stone lions do not exist among them ^{[8, p.44]}. Stone lions lined up on both sides of the road to the mausoleum symbolize favorability and reflect the social rank of the owner of the tomb. In front of the mausoleum of the "Eastern Han Dynasty" the stone lion is huge and mighty. Stone lions in the Han and Southern dynasties were the largest in size. In the structure of the mausoleum, stone lions and tomb gates occupy a large space, and the shape of stone lions is standing and walking. In the mausoleums of the "Tang Dynasty", stone lions began to have a sitting posture and this form gives people the feeling that their duty is to protect the mausoleum (Fig.8). Thus, the stone lion plays the role of stabilizing space in this environment, bringing the entire space into a solemn state, thereby making spatial relations between the mausoleum and the stone lion is more stable ^{[9, p.24]}.

Figure 8. Stone lion in the Qianling Mausoleum of the Tang Dynasty. located in Qian, Shaanxi Province

A source: https://baijiahao.baidu.com/s?id=1734030305151633997&wfr=spider&for=pc

2.3 Stone lions in the space of the Imperial Palace - on the example of the Forbidden City

The lion of the Forbidden City is made of copper, not stone. However, as an example of traditional lion images, one cannot ignore the lion from the Forbidden City. The copper lion of the Forbidden City with a bell on his neck is strong and powerful and is considered a permanent guardian of the emperor, guarding the gates and ensuring peace in the palace. The rulers believed that lions could not only ward off evil spirits, but also bring good. The bronze lions in the Forbidden City are arranged in pairs: males and females. A male copper lion with paws teasing hydrangea symbolizes power, and a female copper lion teasing cubs with paws symbolizes birth. There are seven places in the Forbidden City where copper lions were placed, including Taihe Gate, Qianqing Gate, Yangxin Gate, etc. (Fig. 9).

Figure 9. Copper lions in the Forbidden City.

A source: https://baijiahao.baidu.com/s?id=1672701620107896397&wfr=spider&for=pc

In addition, there is a bridge of the "Ming Dynasty" in the Forbidden City, called the "Broken Rainbow Bridge". 20 stone railings were built on the bridge, 10 on each side, facing each other in pairs. The carvings on each column represent a lotus-shaped seat, and various shapes of stone lions are carved on the top of the seat. Each stone lion has one or two small stone lions engraved on it, and they are lively and cute. There are 34 such small stone lions in total (Fig. 10). So, why is there such a lively and interesting stone lion in the Forbidden City? Many people assume that when the bridge was built, the aesthetics of people at that time were not limited to rituals and customs. In addition, craftsmen can carve and make stone lions only from their own imagination, so various interesting shapes appear. The stone lions of the "broken rainbow bridge" were not dismantled by subsequent generations from their exquisite carvings, hundreds of years later they have been completely preserved to this day.

Figure 10. Small stone lions on the Broken Rainbow Bridge in the Forbidden City.

Source: Window of the Capital about Beijing 

2.4 Stone lions in the space of a residential building — on the example of the ancient village of LianghuThe ancient village of Lianghu is located in Shanxi Province of China and is a famous historical and cultural village in China.

There are various types of residential buildings in the village, and the architectural decorations are rich and exquisite. The art of stone carving is the best among many types of decorative and applied art. The stone lion placed in the house of the nobility in the village is strong and close to a real lion. They either squat or stand on square stone seats. Stone lions are placed in the homes of ordinary people, and people hope for peace and wealth (Fig.11). Most of the stone lions in the ancient village houses of Lianghu were carved during the Qing Dynasty ^{[10, p.39]}. Stone lions of the Qing Dynasty are different from round lions of the Tang Dynasty. From the point of view of carving knife technique, the lines are smooth, full and natural, so the overall image is more delicate and beautiful. But compared to the stone lions of the Tang Dynasty, the image lacks grandeur. Generally speaking, when stone carving works of art are combined with traditional residential buildings, this combination can often give the whole building not only the beauty of details, but also a solemn atmosphere that demonstrates the residents' interest in life.

11. Stone lions in front of houses in the ancient village of Lianghu. located in Jincheng, Shanxi Province.

A source:http://www.360doc.com/content/21/1219/00/20579536_1009334531.shtmlConclusion

Today, the stone lion has become one of the symbolic images of Chinese traditional culture.

After almost two thousand years of evolution, they formed an artistic image of the stone lion with unique Chinese characteristics and accumulated rich cultural connotations. With the emergence, development and maturity of the stone lion culture, the artistic image of the stone lion has become a unique spiritual and cultural symbol in China. Stone lions are one of the most important artistic expressions in various ancient Chinese subject-spatial environments. 

Based on the above analysis, the following symbolic meanings of stone lions can be proposed.

1. Buddhist sacred objects  Lions are sacred objects of Buddhism.

It is recorded in Buddhist scriptures that the lion represents the "power of the dharma." A pair of lions are often engraved on the altars of grottoes [Indian Buddhist architectural form, rock cave] to protect the Dharma and repel evil spirits. Buddhism uses the lion to denote the bravery and fearlessness of the Buddha. After the lion was deified, he appeared in Buddhism and for the first time aroused the admiration of people. With the popularization of Buddhism, the symbolic meaning of the heroic power of the lion was integrated into the life of the Chinese people.  Usually in Buddhism there are two styles of the artistic image of lions: the first is a heroically majestic form, which generally acts as a talisman; the second is a meek and humble form, which usually lies at the feet of the Buddha to listen to his scriptures and protect the Dharma. The lion plays an important role in Buddhism, which is why people consider him a noble and majestic "sacred beast", therefore the lion, as an incarnation of the Buddha, has become revered by people ^{[11, p.18]}. The image of the lion in Buddhism had a great influence on the development of the traditional Chinese artistic image of the lion.

2. Ancient auspicious beast In the early days, when lions were brought to China, they were bred and valued only in royal palaces.

Ordinary people mostly imagined lions based on rumors and could not understand them exactly. In ancient China, people believed that rare animals, plants or treasures symbolized the good. In Chinese history, Chinese auspicious objects as objects of special significance often appear in buildings or works of art of various dynasties. For example, common auspicious objects include dragons, phoenixes, and turtles. These favorable beasts had a very high status in the minds of people at that time. All of them appeared as "gods" and often appeared in royal courts and folk tombs.

Before the lion image was introduced in China, auspicious animals such as qilinis and deer were widely used as gods and beasts to protect the tomb. After the Eastern Han Dynasty, the stone lion became popular as an independent image of an animal in the grave. Grave grave of Gao Yi was built during the Eastern Han Dynasty (209 AD) and was the tomb of Gao Yi (the prefect of Yizhou in the Eastern Han Dynasty), and his younger brother Gao Shi. Stone lions in the Wu family shrines in Shandong Province and a stone lion in front of the tomb of Gao Yi. [The tomb of Gao Yi was built during the Eastern Han Dynasty (209 AD) and was the tomb of Gao Yi (the prefect of Yizhou in the Eastern Han Dynasty), and his younger brother Gao Shi. in Ya'an, Sichuan, these are the earliest stone lion statues found today as gods and beasts in front of the tomb [12, p.28] (Fig.12). In addition, in some legends, lions also have the ability to predict disasters. When faced with natural disasters such as floods and earthquakes, the eyes of stone lions turn red, and people take timely measures for emergency evacuation based on this sign as a guide. Of course, such legends have no factual basis, it's just a fantasy that ancient people put on stone lions.

Figure 12. Stone lion in the grave of Gao Yi, Han Dynasty. located in Ya'an, Sichuan Province.

A source: https://www.163.com/dy/article/H2G05RCA05417BW5.html

3. Demonstration of rank in the hierarchy In the feudal society of ancient China, the rank of estate was extremely valued by people, and the stone lions guarding the gates also had a strict class system.

Generally speaking, two stone lions are chosen in front of the door, usually a man on the left and a woman on the right, which fully corresponds to the concept of "yin and yang" in traditional Chinese philosophy, "a man on the left and a woman on the right.". As a guardian animal, the stone lion not only performs the function of decorative and applied art, but can also show the dignity of the owner. The placement of stone lions on both sides of the gate depends on the direction of the people coming out of the gate. When exiting, the male stone lion should be on the left side of the person, and the male stone lion usually steps on the hydrangea, which symbolizes power. The stone lioness should be on the right side of the person, and as a rule, the stone lion cub is at the feet of the lioness, and the lion cub's belly is turned up, which means well-being for the offspring. However, the threaded mane on the head of a stone lion cannot be cut at will, and the rule was that the more threaded manes, the higher the official rank of the owner, and the number of threaded manes is a symbol of feudal rank. The "Regulations on the Engineering Practice of the Ministry of Industry", promulgated at the beginning of the Qing Dynasty, contained rules for the installation of stone lion guards. There are thirteen carved manes on the head of the stone lion in front of the gates of the mansion of the highest level. When the official rank is lowered, the threaded manes should be reduced in stages, and one threaded mane will be reduced for each lower level. It can be seen that stone lions are a means for the royal family and dignitaries of Chinese feudal society to show their status. However, this restriction was soon lifted, as the use of lions in folk architecture became more and more extensive, and it was difficult to limit it.