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Culture and Art
Reference:

The Imaginary Beast-the Phoenix Sign as the Bearer of the Chinese Bestial Cultural Code: the Evolution of Meanings

Yuan' Mengmeng

PhD in Philosophy

Research Engineer, Department of the History of Philosophy, Philosophical Anthropology, Aesthetics and Theory of Culture UrFU, Ural Federal University. the first President of Russia B. N. Yeltsin

125a Malysheva str., Yekaterinburg, Sverdlovsk region, Russia, 620049

739601405@qq.com

DOI:

10.7256/2454-0625.2023.1.39617

EDN:

FNOGGV

Received:

16-01-2023


Published:

30-01-2023


Abstract: The article considers the formation and development of meanings of the Phoenix as an imaginary beast-sign, a bearer of the bestiary code of Chinese culture. The methodology of highlighting the stages of evolution of the image of the beast-sign and analysis of its meanings is based on the ideas of Russian semioticians V.N. Toporov and A.E. Makhov concerning the historical typology of beast-signs from totem to zoomorphic images, then bestiary images and images-embodies. As a result of the study it was found that the imaginary totemic image-sign Phoenix was formed on the basis of domestic birds: chicken, pheasant, peacock and other animals, the zoomorphic image of the Phoenix symbolised the Sun God, Fire God (female image), Wind God (male image) of the polytheistic pantheon of ancient Chinese Gods, The phoenix became an emblem of imperial power and its female bearers (empresses, princesses, concubines), and finally, in the course of cultural history the image lost its religious and political significance, the phoenix became an emblem of love, femininity, happiness and harmony. Understanding the changing meanings of the phoenix as one of the beast-signs, the carriers of the Chinese cultural code, will enable a better understanding of the aims and values of Chinese culture at different stages of development, as well as the mechanisms of cultural continuity and cultural development in China, making possible endless renewals on the traditional cultural ground.


Keywords:

chinese bestiary, chinese culture, cultural code, symbol, symbolic meaning, totem, phoenix, emblem, beast, sign

This article is automatically translated.

In the modern world, the exchange of important socio-cultural information between Russia and China is becoming increasingly important. For a more complete and subtle understanding of Chinese culture and the information being communicated, the addressee needs knowledge and understanding of specific cultural codes that are stable mechanisms of cultural continuity over many centuries from the culture of Ancient China to the present day. One of the most important cultural codes of China is the so-called bestial code. The Chinese bestiary as a sign-semiotic system based on the beast-sign and the beast-code is formed in the texts of ancient epics, in the art of bronze, and decorative and applied art of Ancient China. In the modern world, the Chinese bestiary as a cultural code develops and is broadcast in the works of the Chinese media industry, where the stories of new characters unfold on the basis of images of fictional iconic animals and birds for Chinese culture. Both in the works of ancient and medieval China, and in modern Chinese media products, each of the imaginary animals-signs of the Chinese bestiary bears a certain semiotic meaning.

Such Russian researchers as N.L. Adilkhanyan [1], O.N. Volkova [2], N.P. Martynenko[3], O.A. Negodyaeva [4], U. devoted their works to the study of the Chinese bestiary based on the material of the ancient Chinese epic "Shan hai Jing" (The Book of Mountains and Seas).N. Reshetneva [5], A.P. Terentyev-Katansky [6], E.M. Yanshina [7].

The study of ancient epics has long been conducted by Chinese scientists, and recently the study of the bestiary and the image of the Phoenix was continued by Pan Bingzhang [8], Fan Wujie [9], Liu Renfeng [10], Li Daiping [11], Tang Xudong [12], Wu Yanzhong [13], Li Wei[14], Wang Mengmen [15]. Chen Xuan [16], Zhu Li [17], Liuqing Yang [18], Lu Jiayu [19], studied the images of animals-signs of the Chinese bestiary in sculpture, ceramics, painting, design, costume, animation, computer games, music and Chinese opera.

Scientists' attention to the so-called bestial code of Chinese culture is explained by the fact that, according to V.N. Toporov, "in relation to the mythopoetic era, animals act as one of the variants of the mythological code" [20, pp. 161-166], and myth, as is known, is one of the most stable ways of forming a holistic cultural picture of the world, and explanations of all processes taking place in the world of culture through actualization and re-mythologization of the original cultural phenomena.

To analyze the mythopoetic images of the Phoenix, one of the most revered and frequently encountered mythological creatures in various works of Chinese art, design and media industry, we will use the historical typology of animal images in culture, developed by the outstanding Russian semiotic V.N. Toporov. He argued that among the various fantastic or realistic images/descriptions of an animal or bird, the most ancient are totemic images of early religions that allow a person to carry out "mythological personification of himself in nature, emphasizing his unity (in the actual present and in terms of continuity) through the elements of nature" [21, pp. 339-341]. According to Demenova V.V., "a fictional bird in every culture bears its own name, has its own external and symbolic features, manifesting itself in different ways in mythology and literary sources" [22, pp. 169-181].

In the history of Chinese culture, the semiotic sign-the image of the Phoenix has gone through several stages of the evolution of the image and meaning. The first stage that the image of the Phoenix experienced at its birth is totemic. The earliest monuments of the totemic cult of this mythological creature include ornaments with the image of a Phoenix that were found in the Neolithic era at the sites of the Hemudu culture.

According to V.N. Toporov, animals or birds bearing a certain cultural code often act as representatives of entire classes of animals and birds, and again, as an example, he writes: "The Phoenix is all birds." [21, pp. 339-341]. Agreement with this idea is found in Liu Chenhuai's book "Ancient Chinese Mythology", where it is stated that "The Phoenix is a typical image of a pheasant as the main body, including many signs of other birds, such as an eagle" [23]. Many other Chinese scientists also believe that the phoenix originated from a totemic cult and appeared as a result of the layering of iconic details of many other animals with the totemic image of a bird as the main one. One of the first fictional descriptions of the phoenix is given in the ancient Chinese epic "Shan hai Jin": "another five hundred li to the east is the mountain of Cinnabar Cave. From there flows the Cinnabar River, there is a bird. It looks like a rooster, five-colored, with streaks. It is called the phoenix (fenghuang)" [7]. At the beginning of the Qin Dynasty (Chunqiu and Zhanguo periods, up to 221 BC), the Phoenix was mainly depicted with a snake neck and high legs, but after the Han dynasties (206 BC — 220 AD) and Tang (June 18, 618 — June 4, 907), it gradually turned into the image of a bird with the body shape of a brocade chicken. After the Song Dynasty (960-1279), more peacock elements were added to the characteristics of the Phoenix.

Reading the articles and books by V.N. Toporov and S.A. Tokarev [24, p. 51], we can say that totemism is a stage of encoding the symbolic kinship of a person with nature, when a real natural being, in this case a bird, is taken as the basis for the image of a beast–sign, and if a fictional creature becomes a totem, then it is endowed by a person with additional positive properties that further emphasize his perfection. This was the mechanism of the birth of the image of a fictional being – the Phoenix. On the basis of the appearance of various domestic birds, an image was formed symbolizing sunlight, summer, warmth, fire and a good harvest. Thus, the worship of the sun and the veneration of the totem of birds, the children of the sun, contributed to the birth of an important image of Chinese culture – the Phoenix bird sign.

As the next stage of the development of the animal code, we, following V.N. Toporov, distinguish zoomorphic images of the period of polytheism development, when the Gods of certain natural forces and elements are endowed with an animal appearance. According to V.N. Toporov, this happens when "individual elements of a zoomorphic code have values permanently assigned to them, which, however, can be transmitted by other code systems," such code systems can be different in sign carriers and isomorphic in executable functions. At the same time, "specific elements of the zoomorphic code gain the ability to act as classifiers that conditionally and symbolically describe this situation and, in addition, can be combined into whole complexes that unite different spheres of being (<...> this animal - plant — land of light — color — heavenly body — element / element — metal — taste — the time of the year is a deity, etc.)" [25, p. 84]. In modern culture, such chains of correspondences are best known as horoscopes. As V.N. Toporov writes, "examples of animals correlating with the countries of the world, the seasons, and the elements are especially common." As one example of such a correspondence, he cites the Phoenix and includes it in the following semiotic chain: "Phoenix — south — summer — fire". Scientists from China agree with the ideas of V.N. Toporov. In his article "Myth and Poetry – the Dragon and the Phoenix", Chinese scientist Wen Yiduo says that "the dragon and the phoenix are "symbols of the birth of our nation and the beginning of our culture"" [26]. About the origin of the phoenix in He Xin's book "The Origin of the Gods" it is said that "the phoenix and the phoenix bird are respectively animal images of two natural elements. The male phoenix is the god of the wind, and the female Phoenix is the solar bird, also known as the "fiery spirit", the living embodiment of the sun"" [27].

      The next stage in the development of the image of the beast-the Phoenix sign – is emblematic. The emblematic function was considered by prominent cultural anthropologists as a continuation of the totemic function, when the head, skin, feathers, claws and fangs of a totemic beast were used as symbols of belonging to a certain tribe, clan, and then the state. K. Levi-Strauss [28], J. Fraser [29], W. Turner [30], A.E. Makhov [31] wrote about the use of animal signs in the emblematic function, and first of all, according to scientists, animal signs were used to symbolize political power and patronage. The phoenix in Chinese antiquity had many symbolic meanings, the most famous of which is that, like the dragon, the phoenix is also a political symbol, usually an emblem used to denote political wisdom, the ability to achieve well-being and harmony.

In the epic "The Voice of the White Tiger" it is written, "Emperor Phoenix, the leader of the birds" [32]. Thus, the epic records that at the next stage of the evolution of the image of the Phoenix, there was a transition from the zoomorphic image of the God of one of the elements (Wind / Sun) to the emblematic image of the imperial power. This reflects the status of the Phoenix in ancient Chinese culture. The king bird in the ancient Chinese legend is a phoenix, a male named "feng", the Queen of birds is a female named "Huang(?)".

First of all, from now on the phoenix is a symbol of political success. It is said that he is so noble and exalted that he does not appear everywhere, but only during periods of political clarity. In the "Poetic Edda" there is a phrase "The Phoenix sings on Mount Qishan" [33], which refers to the time when the phoenix settled on Mount Qishan, the stronghold of the Zhou Dynasty, at the end of the Shang Dynasty, and sang. It was believed that this was a favorable omen for the prosperity of the Zhou dynasty, since the Zhou king Wen possessed virtue and thus attracted the phoenix. Later, King Wu of Zhou conquered the entire province of Zhou and really succeeded. For the ancients, the expression "The Phoenix comes to soar" meant that heaven bestows a favorable fate.

In classical Chinese novels (XIV – XVIII centuries), one can find many references to this symbolic allegory. For example, in the Romance of the Three Kingdoms, when Cao Pi wanted to become emperor instead of Emperor Xian of Han, at that time it was reported, "The Phoenix comes during the ritual, it is a sign of heaven"[34]. This is a way of building up power for the success of political power.

Secondly, as an auspicious symbol associated with the emperor, the Phoenix also often became the emblem of the imperial family. For example, in the Emperor's harem, the Empress, princess and concubines wore Phoenix crowns and traveled in carriages with the Phoenix emblem to the "Tower of the Five Phoenixes" located on the territory of the imperial Palace at the main gate of the Forbidden City. The fact that the "Tower of the Five Phoenixes" is often used in novels and plays as a symbol of the imperial family is also associated with the emblematic symbolism of the Phoenix.

Gradually, the Phoenix began to denote an outstanding talent. Such a change in symbolic meaning occurs during the heyday of Chinese literature, when such masterpieces of classical Chinese literature as "The Three Kingdoms", "River Backwaters", "Journey to the West", "Dream in the Red Chamber" were created. In the poetry of the famous Chinese poet Qu Yuan, the Phoenix is often used as a symbolic image denoting a wise and capable person. Pang Tong, the famous warlord of the Three Kingdoms, was called the "Phoenix chick" because his talent was comparable to the outstanding talent of Zhuge Liang, a strategist, inventor and writer in Ancient China. 

In the novel The Dream in the Red Chamber, Prince Bei Jing praises Jia Baoyu in front of Jia Zheng, "Your son is truly the child of the dragon and the phoenix" [35]. It is also a way of praising Jia Baoyu's talent, comparing the virtues of a person with a Phoenix.

Gradually, the meaning of the images of the Phoenix becomes more and more out-of-class and out-of-religious. The use of ornaments with the image of the Phoenix became less and less strictly regulated by the rules. The imperial family and noble officials were allowed to use ornaments with the image of the Phoenix made of gold and silver, as well as commoners, but from cheaper materials. Legend has it that the "Phoenix hairpin", created by the first emperor of Qin, in later times was usually used only by concubines, but in the era of the Tang Dynasty, ordinary women began to use jewelry similar to it. The poet Wang Jian of the Tang Dynasty wrote a story about a poor girl who was getting married and could not afford a gold or silver hairpin with a Phoenix, so she made a copper hairpin with the image of a Phoenix [12].

Gradually, the emblematic function of the Phoenix as a symbol of queens, princesses or concubines was replaced by a symbol of love, and the ancient Chinese began to use accessories with a Phoenix as a sign of love. In the novel "The Dream in the Red Chamber" it is told that the lovers used gifts as signs of love, which were decorated with images of the Phoenix [35]. There are many love stories associated with various depictions of the Phoenix in Chinese epics.

So, there is a story "Xiao Shi attracting the phoenix". According to the "Legend of the Immortals"[36] by Liu Xiang during the Han Dynasty, a man named Xiao Shi played the xiao so well that his music sounded like the singing of a Phoenix. Prince Qin's daughter, Lanyu, once heard the sound of his xiao, fell in love with him, and they subsequently married. Once they played their instruments together and attracted a flock of Phoenixes with the perfection of music, the birds lifted the lovers to heaven and granted them immortality.

The phoenix as a symbol of love is also reflected in the history of Sima Xiangru (a famous Chinese figure and poet of the Han Empire) and Zhuo Wenjun [37]. When he was poor, Sima Xiangru once visited the house of the rich Zhuo Wang Song and saw Zhuo Wenjun, the daughter of Zhuo Wang Song, looking out of the window of the banquet hall, so he sang the song "Feng is looking for Hong", revealing his heart in a song about the love of a phoenix woman and a phoenix man. Zhuo Wenjun instantly understood his feelings, she fell in love with him at first sight, and that same night they ran away.

The transformation of the Phoenix into a female symbol is associated with a key figure in the history of China – the Empress of the Tang dynasty Wu Zetian. To legitimize her rule, Wu Zetian preached the appearance of the Phoenix as the mandate of Heaven to show that she had replaced Tang with Zhou. She constantly emphasized the connection between Phoenix and women, seeking public support for her claim to the throne. The success of Wu Zetian's claim to the throne and the influence of her status led to the Phoenix gradually becoming a symbol of a noble woman after the Tang era.

In the course of the history of Chinese culture, the Phoenix gradually established a symmetrical correspondence with the dragon, the symbol of the emperor. Unlike the manly dragon, the image of the Phoenix gradually became feminine and graceful, and eventually began to represent women. Thus, we have revealed that the image of the imaginary Phoenix bird, formed in ancient Chinese fine art, folklore and ancient epics, and then turned into television series, cartoons, computer games, film adaptations of the novel "Dream in the Red Chamber" and many others, symbolized a state of joy and happiness, well–being and harmony at first as the imaginary totem beast of Chinese agricultural workers worshipping the Sun, Wind, Fire, heat and a good harvest, then became the emblem of the imperial power, and above all, its female representatives – the Empress, princesses and concubines, and then became a sign of love and happiness, femininity and grace. Thus, "the phoenix represents the Great Limit, that is, the state of perfect harmony of yin and yang" [38, pp. 288-292].

The benevolent nature of the ancient image-the Phoenix sign has led to the fact that it has survived to the present day and is one of the most popular in modern design, which is reflected in clothing, food, housing and transport, for example, wearing a phoenix crown, phoenix shoes, paper cutting and embroidery of phoenix images – all this reflects the desire of millions of Chinese people to a better life and the pursuit of happiness.

The stability of the Phoenix image in Chinese culture for many millennia speaks of reliable mechanisms of continuity in Chinese culture, and the variability and development of the meaning of the Phoenix images speaks of the dynamics of Chinese culture, which has been developing for thousands of years on its own internal foundations and preserving the stability of development and the deep unity of values.

References
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First Peer Review

Peer reviewers' evaluations remain confidential and are not disclosed to the public. Only external reviews, authorized for publication by the article's author(s), are made public. Typically, these final reviews are conducted after the manuscript's revision. Adhering to our double-blind review policy, the reviewer's identity is kept confidential.
The list of publisher reviewers can be found here.

The subject of the study, as follows from the title, is the evolution of the meanings of the Phoenix beast in the history of Chinese culture. The author also outlined in the title the characteristic of the analyzed object as an imaginary carrier of the Chinese bestial cultural code, a hypothesis proved in the course of the presentation of the material. Having identified the main stages of the transformation of the meanings of the Phoenix beast in the history of Chinese culture, the author traced its evolution as a process of democratization (expansion) of socio-cultural functions and meanings of the sign based on the material of individual publications in Chinese. Despite the fact that the subject of the study is generally disclosed and sufficient arguments are given in the work to accept the hypothesis indicated by the author, the scope of practical application of new knowledge and ways of its verification are not obvious from the text of the article. In other words, the author has sufficiently substantiated the existence of a scientific problem, gave a brief review of the literature, proposed a theoretically sound model of the typology of the stages of the evolution of the meanings of the Phoenix beast in the history of Chinese culture, but bypassed the role of the artifact under study in modern Chinese culture and the applicability of the knowledge gained to expand cultural and civilizational dialogue between Russia and China, — I did not solve the problem indicated in the water part of the article. Summarizing the presentation of the author's thought, the conclusion generally follows from the material presented, but does not agree with the goal setting: the author did not explain to the reader how the development of the meanings of the Phoenix images, which speaks "about the dynamics of Chinese culture developing on its own internal foundations and preserving the stability of development and the deep unity of values" contributes to the expansion of cultural and civilizational dialogue between Russia and China. As a result, it has to be stated that the subject of the study is not sufficiently disclosed: it is necessary to finalize either the purpose of the study in the introduction, or according to the designated purpose of the final conclusion. The research methodology is generally relevant, although the research program (the goal, the tasks arising from it, the methods of solving problems and the conclusion) are not spelled out clearly enough, which raises doubts about the author's achievement of a specific clear scientific result. The absence of references to methodically valuable literature in the text of the article and the bibliography is puzzling (V.N. Toporov, A.E. Makhov). There is no author's explanation of how the result he obtained ensures a cultural and civilizational dialogue between Russia and China. To solve such a significant task, the result obtained is clearly insufficient. As already mentioned, the author should clearly prescribe the research program, which will allow to streamline the structure of the presentation of his thoughts and show the reader the ways to verify the scientific knowledge obtained by the author. The relevance of the topic of expanding the cultural and civilizational dialogue between Russia and China is indeed extremely high. It remains for the author to indicate how his research and the result he obtained contribute to the expansion of cultural and civilizational dialogue between Russia and China. The scientific novelty of the article is expressed, first of all, in the inclusion of the author's collection of literature in Chinese into the domestic theoretical discourse. The author proved the validity of the applied approach and the authorized typological model of the evolution of the meanings of the Phoenix beast in the history of Chinese culture. The style is generally scientific, except for the absence of references to the mentioned theoretical and methodological sources. The structure of the article needs to be improved in terms of the logic of presenting the results of the study. There are no comments on the content of the text. The bibliography does not fully reveal the problematic area of research: there is no mention of methodically valuable literature (V.N. Toporov, A.E. Makhov), there is no review of modern domestic and foreign (not Chinese) research on the topic over the past 5 years. The design of the list of references does not meet the editorial requirements. The appeal to opponents is generally correct, although the author refers to Chinese colleagues exclusively in a complementary way, without considering, analyzing or criticizing various approaches. The interest of the readership in the article is certainly guaranteed, taking into account the necessary refinement according to the comments of the reviewer, which the author will undoubtedly cope with.

Second Peer Review

Peer reviewers' evaluations remain confidential and are not disclosed to the public. Only external reviews, authorized for publication by the article's author(s), are made public. Typically, these final reviews are conducted after the manuscript's revision. Adhering to our double-blind review policy, the reviewer's identity is kept confidential.
The list of publisher reviewers can be found here.

In the journal "Culture and Art", the author presented his article "The imaginary beast-the Phoenix sign as a carrier of the Chinese bestial cultural code: the evolution of meanings", which conducted a study of the origin and development of the image of the phoenix in Chinese traditional culture. The author proceeds in studying this issue from the fact that for a more complete and subtle understanding of Chinese culture and the information provided, knowledge and understanding of specific cultural codes are necessary, which are stable mechanisms of cultural continuity over many centuries from the culture of Ancient China to the present day. As noted by the author, the Chinese bestiary as a sign-semiotic system based on the beast-sign and the beast-code is formed in the texts of ancient epics, in the art of bronze, and decorative and applied art of Ancient China. In the modern world, the Chinese bestiary as a cultural code is being developed and broadcast in the works of the Chinese media industry, where the stories of new characters unfold based on images of fictional iconic animals and birds for Chinese culture. Both in the works of ancient and medieval China, and in modern Chinese media products, each of the imaginary animal signs of the Chinese bestiary carries a certain semiotic meaning. The relevance of the research is due to the increasing pace of intercultural communication between Russia and the Republic of China, as well as the attention of the scientific community to the uniqueness of Chinese traditional culture. The scientific novelty of the research is the scientific approach to the consideration of the phoenix concept and its role in shaping the worldview. The methodological basis of the study was an integrated approach containing historical, socio-cultural and semiotic analysis. The theoretical basis of the research is the works of Russian and Chinese art historians. The empirical basis of the study was samples of Chinese artistic culture from various historical periods. Accordingly, the purpose of this study is to analyze the specifics of changing the meaning of the cultural code of the phoenix image in Chinese culture, as well as the factors that determined this change. Having studied the degree of scientific elaboration of the problem, the author concludes that there is a sufficient degree of scientific coverage of the use of images of animals-signs of the Chinese bestiary in sculpture, ceramics, painting, design, costume, animation, computer games, music and Chinese opera. Such Russian researchers as N.L. Adilkhanyan, O.N. Volkova, N.P. Martynenko, O.A. Negodyaeva, U.N. Reshetneva, A.P. Terentyev-Katansky, E.M. Yanshina devoted their works to the study of the Chinese bestiary based on the material of the ancient Chinese epic "Shan hai Jing". The study of ancient epics has long been conducted by Chinese scientists, and recently the study of the bestiary and the image of the phoenix has been continued by Pan Bingzhang, Fan Wujie, Liu Renfeng, Li Daiping, etc. The author explains the attention of scientists to the bestial code of Chinese culture by the fact that animals act as one of the variants of the mythological code, and myth is one of the most stable ways to form an integral cultural picture of the world and explain all the processes taking place in the cultural world by actualizing and re-mythologizing the original cultural phenomena. To analyze the mythopoeic images of the Phoenix, the author takes as a basis the historical typology of animal images in culture, developed by the outstanding Russian semiotic V.N. Toporov. To achieve the purpose of the study, the author conducted a detailed cultural, historical and semiotic analysis of the transformation of the phoenix image-sign from ancient times to the present day using examples of works of Chinese traditional artistic culture. The author identifies several key stages in the evolution of the image and the meaning of the bestial code: totemic, zoomorphic, and emblematic. After conducting the research, the author presents conclusions on the studied materials, noting that the stability of the Phoenix image in Chinese culture for many millennia speaks of reliable mechanisms of continuity in Chinese culture, and the variability and development of the meaning of Phoenix images speaks about the dynamics of Chinese culture, which has been developing for thousands of years on its own internal foundations and preserving the stability of development and deep the unity of values. It seems that the author in his material touched upon relevant and interesting issues for modern socio-humanitarian knowledge, choosing a topic for analysis, consideration of which in scientific research discourse will entail certain changes in the established approaches and directions of analysis of the problem addressed in the presented article. The results obtained allow us to assert that the study of the unique culture of a certain people, its material and spiritual cultural heritage is of undoubted theoretical and practical cultural interest and can serve as a source of further research. The material presented in the work has a clear, logically structured structure that contributes to a more complete assimilation of the material. An adequate choice of methodological base also contributes to this. The bibliographic list of the research consists of 38 sources, including foreign ones, which seems sufficient for generalization and analysis of scientific discourse on the studied problem. The author fulfilled his goal, received certain scientific results that allowed him to summarize the material. It should be noted that the article may be of interest to readers and deserves to be published in a reputable scientific publication.