Origin and development of primitive "porcelain" (proto-porcelain) in China

Se Jixian Postgraduate student, Saint-Petersburg State University of Industrial Technologies and Design 191186, Russia, g. Saint Petersburg, ul. Bol'shaya Morskaya, 18 llliiimmmx@yandex.ru

Introduction

In China, about 4,000 years have passed from the creation of the first "porcelain" (proto-porcelain, preceding porcelain) products to the present day, while the beginning of the production of porcelain proper dates back to the IV-VI centuries. The invention of porcelain is closely connected with the history of pottery, the manufacture of which dates back to the Bronze and Iron Age. The earliest porcelain appeared during the Shang Dynasty, and the real porcelain – during the reign of the eastern Han Dynasty. Primitive porcelain (proto-porcelain), which became a transitional type from pottery to the production of real porcelain, belonged to the era between the reign of the Shang Dynasty and the eastern Han Dynasty. Without considering the history of Chinese porcelain, including its primitive variety, it is impossible to analyze the history of porcelain as a material in general, including as a phenomenon of world culture.

Literature review. The history of Chinese porcelain, often analyzed in comparison with the history of porcelain in Europe, becomes the subject of research by many scientists. H. Chen and S.V. Veselova note the connection of the development of Chinese porcelain with its design ^[9], Huang Xiaoying writes about the influence of the culture and customs of the people on the manufacture of porcelain utensils ^{[8, p. 9]}, E.H. Westphalen and M.N. Krechetova mention the "very intensive, consistent work carried out in China to improve the quality of the shard and glaze ^{[1, p. 3]}. I.S. Zhuschikhovskaya is struck by "the viability of pottery traditions that have come down to us through the centuries and remain in demand in modern society" ^{[3, p. 97]}, E.K. Querfeld – the presence of Chinese masters of a special "ceramic sense" ^{[4, p. 7]}, and to M.M. Kurbatov – that "the mystery of real Chinese porcelain has remained unsolved" ^{[5, p. 72]}. Most often, historians and art historians turn to the development of Chinese porcelain in the XX century, when it already exists in mature forms; such are the studies of T. Li ^[6], I.G. Yakovleva ^[10], T. Kanepa ^[11]. At the same time, the questions of the history of primitive porcelain (proto-porcelain, porcelain at the initial stage of the formation of this artistic phenomenon) in China are rarely touched upon by researchers and require separate careful study.

Research methodology

The main methods of this study were cultural-historical (which allowed to establish the historical context of the creation of porcelain, to identify related cultural processes) and comparative methods (used in comparing the characteristics of clay products of different types), as well as the method of formal and stylistic analysis used in describing the features of the history of porcelain in China, comparing various features and methods of creating porcelain and generalization based on the found correspondences. An interdisciplinary approach was applied, consisting in combining data from various disciplines – art history, cultural studies, history, chemistry.

Research results

Pottery is made from natural material by processing it at high temperatures. Before its appearance, the creation of products made of stone, bone, wood and other natural materials changed only the external shape of objects, but not their physical and chemical properties, whereas firing clay changes not only the external shape of objects, but also their properties. When sintering at temperatures above 800 °C, a number of chemical reactions occur in clay, including loss of crystallization water integrated into clay particles, crystal transformation, solid-phase reactions, etc. ^{[7, p. 60]}. Compared with other containers made of natural materials, pottery has advantages such as resistance to fire, oxidation and corrosion.

Porcelain was the result of the experience accumulated in the long process of making pottery by man, the study of the physical and chemical nature of raw materials, experiments with proportions and the constant improvement of firing technology.

If the pottery is usually unglazed or covered with a low-temperature glaze, then the surface of the porcelain is usually covered with a glaze fired at high temperatures.

Porcelain is made by firing porcelain stones containing aluminum oxide. Porcelain must be fired at high temperatures reaching more than 1200 °C. Moreover, the firing temperature varies depending on the grade of special porcelain clay. Pottery is usually made on the basis of clay, and the total temperature of its manufacture is 700 ° C – 800 ° C, and in some cases reaches 1000 ° C. Since the firing temperature of porcelain is much higher than that of pottery, the density of porcelain after firing is much greater than that of pottery.

At the beginning of the history of porcelain, there was such a variety of it as primitive porcelain (protopharfor). Neolithic pottery with colored, red, gray, black and white coloring shows that by the time of its creation, man had already accumulated some experience and formed ideas about the process of its production. During the long practice of firing pottery, a person learned how to select and process clay raw materials, and has already used porcelain clay to burn white pottery. Although its chemical composition was close to that of porcelain, but due to the insufficient firing temperature in the furnace used at that time, the material of such white dishes showed an insufficient degree of sintering. Actually, that's why these products are still pottery and cannot be called porcelain.

During the reign of the Shang Dynasty, around the XVI century BC, porcelain products were first created during the development of the practice of firing white and stamped hard pottery (Fig. 1), improving the choice and methods of processing materials, as well as increasing the temperature during firing and glazing of the surface.

Fig. 1. Stamped solid pottery of the Shang Dynasty

The green glazed ware of the eastern Han dynasty (Fig. 2), discovered during excavations in the Shanyu area (Zhejiang), basically already reached the standards of modern porcelain, which is determined by the analysis of its physical and chemical properties ^{[12, p. 318]}.

Fig. 2. Green glazed tableware of the Eastern Han Dynasty

Art historians believe that China created primitive porcelain around the middle of the reign of the Shang Dynasty in the XVI century BC ^{[4, p. 7]}. However, it is noted that there is an intermediate stage of development and improvement between the creation of pottery and porcelain, therefore, in the period from the Shang Dynasty to the eastern Han Dynasty, glazed tableware should be called primitive porcelain, because primitive porcelain was close to porcelain in chemical composition and physical properties, but differed little from pottery, therefore this type of tableware can no longer be called glazed pottery ^{[2, p. 70]}.

Thus, primitive porcelain, which is a transitional stage from pottery to the production of real porcelain, belonged to the era between the reign of the Shang Dynasty and the eastern Han Dynasty.

The origin of primitive porcelain dates back to the XVI–XI centuries BC.

The development of geometric stamped pottery and the appearance of white and hard ceramics provided the necessary conditions for the origin of primitive porcelain in terms of the choice of clay and firing temperature, and the combination with glaze accelerated its development. The earliest discovery of primitive porcelain was made during the study of the Shanghai Maqiao culture in the Taihu Basin between 3500-3900 years ^{[3, p. 90]}. Early primitive porcelain in texture, decor and production technique was basically the same as stamped solid pottery. For its production, a ceramic or wooden rivet was used, on which a geometric pattern was engraved to decorate the surface of the vessel by applying a stamp. In general, the experience of firing hard pottery also became a prerequisite for the gradual formation of primitive porcelain in the Shang Dynasty.

Primitive porcelain of the Shang Dynasty consists of two materials: one with a high content of Fe2O3, having brown and gray colors, and the other with a lower content of Fe2O3, grayish-white. Both have a high content of SiO2 (silicon dioxide). Such products are often covered with a greenish-yellow or greenish-green glaze. The material is solid, but still contains a different amount of impurities, and the condition of the glaze is poor, it has thin, uneven layers, different in color.

Primitive porcelain glazes originate in the firing of stamped hard ware. Most primitive porcelain glazes were made from various clays as the main raw material, together with CaO-containing wood ash, limestone or calcium-containing clay.

Primitive porcelain, in general, is divided into a series of styles characteristic of the Central Plain and determined by the type of products, such as jugs with a deep bottom, basins, small jugs and tsun with a wide neck; as well as local styles that characterize various types of jugs and urns, cylindrical jugs with a concave bottom, pots in the form of ducks and other series with a concave base.

The technique of firing primitive porcelain evolved from the early round kiln system to the dragon kilns of the late Shang Dynasty. These two types of furnaces have coexisted for a long time for firing various products. In particular, the first peak in the history of the development of primitive porcelain is associated with the firing of large dishes in Wucheng in Jiangxi province ^{[9, p. 189]}.

The development of primitive Chinese porcelain took place in the XI–II centuries BC. Since the Western Zhou Dynasty, the variety, quantity and quality of primitive porcelain has advanced significantly compared to the Shang Dynasty. Primitive porcelain gained great popularity and became the main subject of everyday life, which was also used for ritual purposes – it was placed in burials.

During the Shang Dynasty, the shape and decor of primitive porcelain were mainly borrowed from stamped hard pottery, and these two types of products show the continuity of style. Since the time of Western Zhou, under the influence of the bronze culture, primitive porcelain has appeared, imitating the shape and decor of bronze ceremonial vessels.

In the middle and end of the Chunqiu Period (the period of Spring and Autumn), ceramics were mainly used to make bowls, jugs, plates and other simple objects produced with fewer decorative patterns.

From the end of the Western Zhou period to the end of the Spring and Autumn period, a dragon furnace specializing in firing primitive porcelain already existed in Zhejiang Province, thanks to it, primitive porcelain formed such characteristics as the correct shape, dense material, greenish-yellow glaze and a good combination of glazes ^{[9, p. 190]}. The production process and firing technique of such primitive porcelain were preserved until the period of the Fighting Kingdoms.

The end of the era of primitive porcelain dates back to the II–III centuries BC.

Frequent changes in the political situation from the middle of the Warring Kingdoms period to the Han Dynasty led to the interruption of the tradition of firing primitive porcelain in the middle of the Warring Kingdoms period and its resumption only at the end of the Warring Kingdoms era, in the middle and end of the reign of the Eastern Han Dynasty. It was then that the transformation of porcelain into a mature variety completed its almost two thousand-year history. At the same time, it should be understood that the heyday of porcelain in later times was prepared by the stage of development of the technology of firing primitive porcelain.

During the Han Dynasty, primitive porcelain experienced a significant rise and breakthrough in terms of product types, decorative techniques and technologies. In the Western Han Dynasty, primitive porcelain was used to produce not only ceremonial items, but also secular utensils, replacing products made of other materials, which played a major role in the development of primitive porcelain. The firing of primitive porcelain also reached its heyday, which made it possible to further improve the experience of breading and cleaning the material, glaze, experiments with the firing temperature, which eventually provided the technological basis for the formation of "mature", real porcelain of the Eastern Han dynasty, while primitive porcelain left the historical scene.

Conclusion

The primitive "porcelain" of China can be called the basis of real porcelain of a later period. It was formed as a cultural phenomenon by long practice, in which the understanding of clay as a material and the technology of using the furnace reached a qualitatively new level.

Primitive porcelain originates in the process of firing stamped hard pottery, and the almost two thousand-year history of its development covers the Bronze and Iron Ages. The nature of the origin, development, metamorphosis of primitive porcelain at different times was determined by both the level of material culture and the actual firing technique. The interweaving of various internal and external factors has led to the fact that the stylistic appearance of primitive porcelain in each period bears a deep imprint of its time.

The prospects of this research consist in further in-depth analysis of the varieties of primitive Chinese porcelain, its chemical composition and the processes involved in its manufacture, as well as identifying the role of primitive porcelain in the development of Chinese and world material culture.