Chinese Women’s Art

Yui Vei Postgraduate Student, Department of Art History and Pedagogy of Art, Herzen State Pedagogical University of Russia 196602, Russia, g. Saint Petersburg, ul. Kameronovskaya, 12, stroenie 2, kv. 54 mengli3647130@gmail.com

The origin of women's art in China is historically due to the spread of Western concepts of feminism in the country at the turn of the XX century. At the same time, in the new cultural and historical conditions, Western feminism received a different interpretation and led to the emergence of a women's liberation movement in China with a very special content and objectives. European and American ideas of combating social discrimination against women and the dominance of men in society have become a tool of male intellectuals in their struggle against the feudal past of the country. In the following decades, calls for women's liberation served as the banner of the revolution, revealing the inextricable connection of the women's liberation movement with the national liberation movement, led by men who, in the struggle for the liberation of women, never departed from national interests.

Since the 1910s, the issues of women's education, freedom in love and marriage have become particularly relevant in Chinese society. The formation of ideas about the new woman, as well as about the content and objectives of the movement for women's liberation, began. However, questions remained about the functions and future of these newly released women. For example, who should (and should not) liberate? What should women do after their release? Who had the right to release women? And what happened to gender relations after the liberation of women? Many works of art and polemical writings written by intellectuals of the "May 4 Movement" are devoted to these issues ^[3].

The prevailing opinion in science is that the "new woman", who appeared thanks to the efforts of members of the "May 4 Movement" in the struggle for the liberation of ideological consciousness and for a new culture, turned out to be only a facade ^[5]. Despite the fact that ideas about women's education, women's financial independence, etc. appeared at that time, traditional values still continued to have a significant impact on public consciousness. Chinese society was dominated by the "three foundations and five unshakable rules" (sangangwuchang) and the ideal model of femininity "virtuous wife and good mother" (xianqi liangmu ). Thus, the idea of a "new woman" arose in China as a result of the social transformation of society that took place after the establishment of the Republic, but existed only within the framework of the concept of "new thoughts, old values" (xin sixiang, jiu daode. The period from 1925 to 1935 was a transitional time when both public figures and artists united politically and socially, creating various, sometimes contradictory theories related to the inclusion of women in the national construction project.

It was only with the establishment of the People's Republic of China in 1949 that women truly transcended the patriarchal family and gained civil rights. Most of the women received professional education, started working and building a career on a par with men, they fully took place as "people of the nation" (guojia de ren). And yet, since this liberation movement did not develop as an independent campaign of women fighting for their rights, but rather was a side effect of the national liberation movement led by male revolutionaries, there was no critical awareness of female subjectivity in it.

In contrast to the millennial system of feudalism, which deeply imprinted in the female psyche all patriarchal ideals – ideas about female weakness, fear, obedience and dependence, in Modern China, women who received the status of free sought to establish themselves as independent, strong-willed individuals. In the new society, the socialist slogan "men and women are the same" (nann? dou yiyang ) was established, which promoted gender equality. The model of femininity "iron maiden" (tie guniang ), which endowed women with masculine traits and qualities, which denied female physiology and psychology, gained enormous popularity. For almost half a century, from 1949 to the 1980s, Chinese women experienced a "prefeminist stage of self-denial" ^[5]. As for Chinese art, there was standardization and uniformity in the artistic interpretation of the female image. Artists during this period, in principle, showed no interest in expressing the inner world and human experiences.

It was only with the beginning of the reforms and the "open door" policy in 1978, which were designed to modernize the Chinese economy, that artists, both men and women, felt the freedom of creativity. This prompted them to explore the individual beginning in art. Such a strong desire for self-expression leads to the awakening of female self-consciousness. At this time, unofficial organizations of women artists are emerging all over the country, who are increasingly critical of the existing history of Chinese art, in which the canon of male visual experience has been established. Chinese women artists realized the need to unite, learn from each other and provide mutual support, and this movement led to the development of women's art. The awakening of female self-awareness and the growth of female subjectivity occurred in the 1980s. At the same time, it must be admitted that the concept of feminist art was largely inferior in strength to the artistic movement of "scar painting" that unfolded at that time. This movement expressed the desire to comprehend the recent past of the country, which left deep scars in the psyche of people. Women artists, although they were active creators of new wave art, rarely addressed gender issues. The turning point was the performance "Dialogue" (duihua) Xiao Lu, presented at the 1989 Chinese avant-garde Art exhibition. This work brought Chinese women's art to the world stage.

There are two stages in the further development of women's art in the country: the restoration and development of female subjectivity in the 1990s and the turn of feminist art towards personal freedom in the XXI century ^[5]. Globalization and intensive market development in the 1990s led to the transformation of China's artistic sphere. In particular, many women artists have found opportunities for creative formation and self-realization. A striking example was the exhibition events, both private and public, held throughout the country. Under the influence of social and economic transformations and the movement of Chinese art towards the development of the individual principle, more and more female artists appeared who introduced a new, feminine look into Chinese art, which until then was based on the male visual tradition. Since that time, new art organizations have appeared in the country, united by the awareness of the need to promote women's art. In the 1990s, women had the opportunity to exhibit their works, talk about their works, creative ideas and finds. In 1990, students of the Central Academy of Arts organized an independent exhibition entitled "The World of Women Artists" (N? huajia de shijie)). This event is considered to be the first exhibition in China that revealed the emotional world of a woman - her thoughts, hopes, aspirations and ideals, and also showed the real life of women artists. This exhibition announced the arrival of women's art in China.

The birth of women's art was accompanied by the appearance of women art historians and studies devoted to this artistic phenomenon. So, in 1994, Xu Hong published an essay "Coming Out of the Abyss: My Feminist Criticism" (Zouchu shenyuan: wo de n?xingzhuyi pipingguan :", in which she condemned the patriarchal nature of existing art institutions and art education, stressed the need for change in the artistic sphere ^[4]. 

In August 1995, the United Nations held the IV World Conference on the Status of Women in Beijing. This event became an unprecedented important discussion platform for women who had the opportunity to raise issues that were important to them, in particular, for women artists who were able to present their works to the general public. Some Chinese artists drew inspiration from the Western feminist movement. In 1998, four artists from Beijing – Li Hong, Cui Xiuwen, Feng Jiali and Yuan Yaomin – founded a feminist painting workshop called "Sairen Art Studio" (Sairen yishu gongzuoshi )). In this studio, they explored their life experiences, the living conditions of Chinese women, their values and ideals. They also searched for innovative forms of expression, alternative to existing ones, going beyond templates. Thus began the formation of feminist art in China. Of particular importance was the national art exhibition "Woman of the Century" (Shiji-n?xing -) in 1998, which became a vivid demonstration of the history of women's art to the present day.

The founders of the Saizhen Art Studio for the first time in Chinese art touched upon issues related to female identity, gender and sexuality. Nudity has become a fundamental theme that constitutes a significant aspect of women's artistic discourse ^[1]. The work "Pregnancy is Art" (1999) by Feng Jiali was created with the help of photographs of the artist herself in order to study the changes that a woman undergoes during pregnancy ^[2]. The series "Rose and Water Mint" by Cui Xiuwen is devoted to the study of female sexual desire. In this work, the naked male body becomes an object of female perception, thereby undermining the generally accepted idea of a woman as an object of male gaze ^[1].

In April 1998, Taipei hosted the exhibition "Mind and Spirit: Women's Art in Taiwan" (Yixiang yu meixue: Taiwan n?xing yishu zhan :? )), and in June an exhibition entitled "Half of the Sky – Chinese Women Artists" (Die H?lfte des Himmels: Chinesische K?nstlerinnen) was held in Germany. These and other events have shown that Chinese women have found a voice in social terms and in art, they were no longer silent objects of image in painting, literature, etc., and now they have become creators themselves. Chinese women's art has become a significant tool for cognition and study of female subjectivity.

Women have ceased to be cultural "pets" or just objects that can be seen, discussed or drawn, they have declared themselves as an important component of Chinese society, demonstrated the contribution they make to the development of a new culture, the construction of a new state on an equal basis with men. Since then, women's art, the ideological principles and aesthetic values that women artists asserted, have moved from the periphery to the center of social dialogue and the artistic life of the country, becoming an integral part of the development of contemporary art.

This new movement towards finding a female identity was initiated by female artists, but soon developed into a hobby, a popular trend that perpetuated gender biases and limitations ^[5]. Female artists have unnecessarily locked themselves into exploring their emotional world, female consciousness, experiences, etc. Torn between feelings of self–pity and self-hatred, they returned to the cliched images, eventually falling into the trap of a narcissistic, self-contained sphere, out of touch with the world - their images were devoid of humanity and any cultural significance. The content and form of many works of women's art of that time began to converge, the artists again and again superficially reproduced gender meanings and symbols – all this testified to the creative crisis that had come. Finally, against the background of unrestrained consumerism of the 1990s, women's art became something of a brand, a consumer product that flooded the market.

With the advent of the new millennium, Chinese women artists have entered a new phase of understanding their gender. Based on their own experience, they turned to the study of history, time and space in a broader social understanding. They no longer focus only on separating themselves from men, but strive to find harmony in this world, relying on their feminine essence. Both sexes form their own cultural layer, but at the same time they intersect with each other and complement each other. Together, men and women will take responsibility for shaping the civilization of the future.

This new awareness of the harmonious integration of themselves and the whole allowed Chinese women artists to raise their art to a new level, they finally caught the pulse of life of the global ecosystem. Their creativity is based not only on the desire for pure self-expression, but more on the desire to overcome gender differences and develop new ideas about society, history and humanity. The development of this new way of thinking was associated with the rejection of the concept of feminism by many artists. From the study of female subjectivity, Chinese female artists have moved on to the study of humanity, ecology and the relationship between people and nature. The analysis of human nature as such led them to develop feminist humanism in their work and, as a result, they managed to create a completely new aesthetic. Two powerful artistic strategies arise: the first consisted in the destruction of new thematic foundations and cultural meanings, the second strategy implied overcoming the individual experience of the female "I" ^[5].

At the turn of the XXI century, the works of women artists become thematically deeper, they explore various relationships, individual experiences, social phenomena and transformations. The generation of artists born in the 1960s and early 1970s became a new stage in the development of modern women's art. Here are some examples. Since her school years, drawing images of young girls, Yu Hong experimented with various forms of painting, honing her skills and using art as a means of conveying her understanding of life. In her epic series "Witness to Growth" (Muji chengzhang, 1999-), the artist documents her life by comparing images of growing up with historical events reflecting the process of development of social thinking.

Over the past few years, new trends have emerged in Yu Hong's work. Inspired by ancient Chinese and Italian frescoes, she created the painting "Golden Sky" (Jinse tianjin, 2009-10), which illustrates the search for the meaning of human existence in painting. For Yu Hong, the creative process begins with the search for a form, which she then fills with content by integrating philosophical theories. Her art expresses both humanism and philosophical reasoning.

Cui Xiuwen's painting "Rose and Water Mint" (Meigui yu shuibohe , 1996-97) conveys anti-patriarchal sentiments. In the XXI century, the artist, however, departs from the theme of irreconcilable confrontation of the sexes. In his digital project "Ladies' Room" (Xishoujian, 2000), Cui Xiuwen demonstrates the intimate space of a women's toilet to show the life of Chinese call girls. In another oil painting, "Angel" (Tianshi, 2006), the artist depicts teenage girls going through puberty. In this work, she shows her concern about the growing problem of teenage pregnancy. Her later work "Existential Emptiness" (Zhengong miaoyou, 2009), unlike her earlier works, postulates the rejection of realism in favor of the development of techniques of traditional landscape ink painting. This work immerses the viewer into the bosom of nature, inviting meditation, free reflection and the experience of the true transcendent spirit. The artist's insightful and sensitive gaze often captures the life of marginalized groups of women in art, the characteristic style gives her works a special expressiveness.

Thanks to her series "Face Mask" (Mianmo , 1999), artist Liu Manwen has become a cult symbol of suffering women. Her later work "Survival Report" (Shengcun baogao, 2003) is a further development of reflections on women's struggle through the prism of personal experience and experiences. The work "Blues" (Landiao , 2008-10) is a reflection on the theme of modern urban values, demonstrating the resonance between an intimate female space and a city full of desires. A later work, "Moonlight over the Lotus Pond" (Hetang yuese , 2011), is based on the tragedy of women who left their mark on Chinese history, widely known as "beautiful women who suffered an unhappy fate" (hongyan boming ?). Using the stories of these women, Liu Manwen tells about her own painful experiences and about the social problems that cause her deep concern.

Lee Hoon is a professional journalist, and in her work she retains the insight and observation that are inherent in her style in journalism. In art, she seeks to show the hardships of the lives of disenfranchised women, referring to the history of the country since the beginning of the "open door" policy. Her series "The State of Affairs" (Zhuangtai , 2009–), filled with elements of symbolism, exposes the anxieties and fears of women generated by the era of industrialization. In later works, Li Hong develops the image of a Barbie doll, criticizing the standard of beauty, in pursuit of which countless women harm their own bodies in order to be considered beautiful. Becoming victims of these social attitudes and standards of beauty, women turn into dolls, but, in the end, it deprives them of their individuality. Li Hong also expresses his feminist ideas in his literary work. Both in literature and in painting, the focus of her attention invariably remains the living conditions of women and their sufferings, anxieties and fears caused by certain social problems.

Tao Aimin has been traveling through rural China for years. In all the places she visited, Tao Aimin collected wooden washing boards that had belonged to the villagers for centuries, old and cracked. Having seen the personal stories of many Chinese women in these countless washboards, the artist created several expressive installations filled with symbolism and deep content. Her installations "Women's Magazine" (N?ren jing , 2005), "Book of Women" (N?shu , 2005) and "Monument to Women" (N?ren bei , 2005) are dedicated to the centuries-old history of women's suffering and hardships. The installation "River of Women" (2005) is deeply symbolic: the water flow recalls the flow of women's lives and the tears they shed. Tao Aimin's documentary about the life of an elderly woman with her legs tied is edifying and poignant.

The mature stage of Shen Lin's work is distinguished by an increasingly unbridled manner of writing and a bright palette, her works are based on complex conceptual issues and problems that humanity is struggling with. In particular, the artist explores the relationship between the commercialization of society and sexual behavior. In her work "Love, Lovers" (Airen, qingren, 1999), the artist ridicules abnormal sexual relationships, and in her work "Red Wine" (Hongjiu, 1999), she shows a depraved, vicious urban environment, existence in which is filled with desires and passions. In her daring and frank series "Pink Bed" (Fen chuang , 2003-2005), the artist exposes human passions, promoting women's sexual freedom and the idea that men and women are equal in sex – all this undermines traditional cultural values and attitudes.

Chen Liniang and Li Xinmo use the image of menstrual blood in their works . A striking example are the works "Twelve Flower Months" (Shi'er ge yue hua , 1999-2000) and "Self-Portrait of menstrual blood" (Jingxue zihuaxiang , 2009-10). The female monthly cycle associated with the sacred process of reproduction of mankind, painful menstruation was perceived in traditional Chinese culture as something dirty. In a series of twelve photographs, Chen Liniang captured the flow of her menstrual blood flowing from her genitals to her thighs and buttocks. The author touches on the issue of menstrual pain. Li Xinmo's self-portrait, stained with blood, also focuses on pain. This work postulates a departure from the standards of portraiture that male artists adhere to. Both artists embody their own bodies in painting, and the image of menstrual blood emphasizes the burden of pain that women experience during childbirth, during menstruation, thereby generating a special intimate visual language that challenges the traditional values of a conservative patriarchal society.

After seven years of studying at the St. Petersburg Academy of Arts named after I. Repin, Ye Nan returned to China. She was struck by a country transformed during her absence by economic reforms and rapid commercialization. She was surprised to realize that she could not adapt to the new realities of her homeland. Her feelings of anxiety and disorientation were reflected in the series "Anxiety" (Xuannian , 1998). Combining the artistic principles of realism with symbolism, Ye Nan conveys his personal experience, telling about the problems caused by recent social transformations. The range of topics she touches on is extremely wide: from difficult living conditions to problems of mental disorientation and the dangers of losing spiritual identity. In other works, for example, "Moving Forward" (Fenjin, 2000), the artist creates a metaphor of actual social reality, striving to express the general trend towards constant advancement, growth, progress, development. Her works "On Guard of the Motherland" (Shouwang jiayuan, 2006), "Girl" (Nizi , 2005) and "Hope" (Chongjing, 2006) tell about the fate of rural women – mothers who are forced to leave their children and migrate to cities in search of work. Ye Nan conveys the pain of these children deprived of parental hugs, the heavy brushstrokes of the artist are permeated with tears of maternal love. A trip to Tibet opened up a new spirituality to Ye Nan, for example, in her works "Children of the Earth" (Dadi zhi zi, 2003), "Challenge" (Zhaohuan, 2015) and Prayer (Qidao, 2013), images of human spirituality and the idea of sacred unity between heaven and man were manifested.

Thus, modern women artists of China form a special artistic language in their work, reflecting on personal experiences, social problems, historical destinies. Expanding ideas about a woman's personal and cultural space, about a woman's body and self-consciousness, they criticize the patriarchal views and attitudes that dominate Chinese culture. A number of women artists take their artistic horizons beyond personal experience, seeking to explore a wider field of cultural space. The subject of their analysis is the relationship between the individual and society, between nature and man.