Adjective metaphor: derivational-semantic model of qualification

Sandakova Marina Vsevolodovna ORCID: 0000-0003-1450-6603 Doctor of Philology Professor; Department of Modern Russian Language and General Linguistics; Lobachevsky National Research Nizhny Novgorod State University Bogdanovicha str., 8, sq. 42, Nizhny Novgorod, Nizhny Novgorod region, 603087, Russia sandakova@flf.unn.ru

Introduction

Metaphorization is one of the main mechanisms for the development of qualitative meaning in a relative adjective, see ^{[1; 2; 3]} and others.

Usually relative adjectives are derived, with the exception of a group of adjectives with a borrowed base, see ^[4]. As syntactic derivatives that repeat the meaning of their motivator ^{[5, pp. 184-185]}, relative substantive adjectives inherit the semantics of the motivating noun and express the general meaning of ‘one that refers to what is called the motivating basis'.

Linguistics has long drawn attention to the possibility of using relative adjectives for qualitative characteristics of a subject. Even A.M. Peshkovsky, considering the examples steel feather – steel muscles; father's house – father's attitude (like a father's), etc., noticed that all adjectives "potentially ... contain a shade of quality" ^{[6, p. 93]}.

V. V. Vinogradov wrote that the meanings of relative adjectives "are almost entirely determined by the substantive meaning of the generating noun. For example: berezovy, bibliologichesky, bivachny, birzhevoy..." ^{[1, p. 186]}. At the same time, there are living connections between lexico-grammatical categories, the boundaries of the categories are permeable and mobile, and qualitative meanings are constantly being formed in the language. The development of qualitative meaning, according to V. V. Vinogradov, is based on the generating names themselves: "... What crystallizes in a derived adjective as a separate meaning still appears in the corresponding noun as a kind of metaphorical halo of the word, as an emerging figurative meaning" ^{[1, p. 186]}. V. V. Vinogradov illustrates this idea using the example of the adjective marble, which is used in three meanings: 1) ‘one that is made of marble’ (marble table); 2) ‘one that looks like marble with a pattern’ (marble soap); 3) ‘white and smooth like marble’ (marble forehead). In the semantics of the noun marble, there are "hints" of this qualitative poetic meaning ^{[1, p. 187]}.

In the works of O. P. Ermakova on the semantics of derived words investigated the multilateral word-formation and semantic connections of adjectives. The author describes the phenomenon of double motivation, or the double derivability of a figurative meaning, when it is motivated by "the figurative meaning of the producer and the direct meaning of the derivative itself" ^{[7, p. 119]}. For example, the metaphorical meaning of the adjective mirrored (‘smooth, even’) is derived, on the one hand, from the direct meaning of the adjective mirrored as ‘relating to a mirror’ (a mirror in the direct meaning is ‘a polished surface used to reflect objects’), on the other – from the metaphorical meaning of the noun mirror as ‘a flat surface of water’ ^{[7, pp. 118-119]}.

A derivational-semantic model for the development of qualitative meaning

A number of studies devoted to lexical paradigmatics describe the phenomenon of reflecting the relationship between words (the meanings of words). It consists in the fact that units that are in one or another paradigmatic relationship can transfer this type of relationship to their derivatives.

In the works of V. V. Vinogradov, O. S. Akhmanova and other linguists dealing with the problems of homonyms, a reflected homonymy was revealed, see ^{[8; 9; 10]}. The members of a homonymous pair inherit and reflect the relationships of their motivators. For example, the pair chromium ¹ (‘one that refers to chromium, a chemical element') – chromium ² (‘one that refers to chromium– a soft leather of special dressing') repeats the homonymous relations of the producing nouns: chromium ¹ – chromium ², see ^{[10, pp. 158-159]}.

In the studies of subsequent years, a reflected antonymy was described, see ^{[11; 12; 13]}. A. N. Tikhonov showed that this type of antonymy is inherent in derived words if their producers have opposite meanings, "from whom they borrow antonymic meanings, as if they reflect them in their semantic structure" ^{[11, p. 35]}. For example, the upper–lower pair reflects the antonymy of the motivating upper–lower pair.

L. N. Rozhentsova writes that, along with reflected homonymy and antonymy, there is also reflected polysemy in the language. In her article ^[14], the semantic structures of the members of a word–formation pair are compared using the example of the words fox - fox. The ratio of the values of the generating name fox (‘animal’ – ‘sly man’) is similar to the ratio of the values of the derived fox (‘related to fox’ – ‘sly’). The author comes to the conclusion that "derivatives borrow the meanings of their producers, as if reflecting them in the semantic structure" ^{[14, p. 5]}. In the cited work, O. P. Ermakova ^[7] describes, albeit in different terms, the essentially similar interrelationships of words.

Thus, the secondary metaphorical meaning of a substantive adjective is embedded in two sets of relations of word-formation and semantic derivation: with a motivating name (word-formation and semantically) and with its own initial relative meaning (semantically).

The formation of a qualitative metaphorical meaning can be represented in the form of a derivational-semantic model, which combines four lexico-semantic units with standard paradigmatic connections.:

noun → noun

(direct meaning) (metaphor)

↓ ↓

adjective → adjective

(relative) (high-quality)

This model regularly operates in the language when a relative adjective is used.

Let's show this with examples of the words waste paper, waste paper.

Dictionary interpretations:

1) the direct meaning of the noun waste paper: "Expired products made of paper and cardboard, old newspapers, paper waste, etc., which are used as secondary raw materials in paper mills" ^{[15, vol. II, p. 217]};

2) the metaphorical meaning of the noun waste paper: "Peren. A mediocre, valueless literary work // Sobir. The totality of such works" ^{[15, vol. II, pp. 217-218]};

3) the direct (relative) meaning of the adjective waste paper: ‘one that refers to waste paper’;

4) the metaphorical (qualitative) meaning of the adjective waste paper: "peren. Razg. Neglect. Of poor quality, suitable only to become waste paper" ^{[15, vol. II, p. 218]};

Usage examples:

1) the direct meaning of the noun is to collect waste paper;

2) the metaphorical meaning of the noun: to read all kinds of waste paper;

3) the direct or metonymic (relative) meaning of the adjective: waste paper warehouse. And also:

Probably, this racket in a decayed canvas bag is still rotting where Pervushin put it then – behind a fire shield on the wall of a waste paper shed. (T. Ustinov. Big evil and petty dirty tricks. 2003) [NKRJ]; There is a boom in waste paper literature in the country – the kind that is sold in exchange for twenty kilograms of old paper. (D. Karalis. Self-portrait. 1999) [NKR]; Then everyone was reading Druon's "Cursed Kings", bought on scrap paper coupons, and raved about the Templars. (Y. Polyakov. Love in an era of change).

4) the metaphorical (qualitative) meaning of the adjective: a mediocre waste paper story. And also:

One of those who supported him in the LG elections was … Vladimir Vasilyevich Karpov, a highly combative man and the author of waste paper novels about marshals and generals, glued together from undigested documentaries. (L. Danilkin. The man with the egg. The life and opinions of Alexander Prokhanov. 2007); You are, of course, afraid that my machine will reward you for all your efforts with some pathetic figure, as if you did not offer it the work of your whole life, but some kind of waste paper review written with disgust and solely to get rid of... (A. Strugatsky, B. Strugatsky. A lame fate. 1982) [NKR]; ... Even in Nizhny Novgorod, it was difficult to find anything interesting and new in bookstores, and at railway stations there was only junk in kiosks. (N. Varentsov. The heard. Seen. A far-fetched one. The experience. 1930-1935) [NKRJ].

So, the following ratio of noun and adjective values is observed:

Waste paper (old newspapers, books) – waste paper (about bad literature)

Waste paper (one that refers to waste paper) – waste paper (mediocre, of poor quality, of no value)

Here are some more examples of the model implementation.:

The top (the upper part of something) is the top (about the highest level of something)

Vertex (one that belongs to a vertex) – vertex (highest; one that has reached the highest level)

Penal servitude (a type of prison sentence) – penal servitude (about a hard life)

Convict (one that refers to penal servitude) – hard labor (extremely difficult, painful)

Lackey (servant) – lackey (about a cringing man)

Lackeysky (one who refers to a footman) – lackeysky (obsequious, servile)

Tinsel (shiny threads, decorations made from them) – tinsel (about external luster)

Tinsel (one that refers to tinsel) – tinsel (deceptive, designed to make an external impression)

Dead end (street without through passage) – dead end (about a hopeless situation)

Dead–end (one that refers to a dead end) - dead-end (hopeless, hopeless)

A motivating noun may have no metaphorical meaning. In this case, the model has a gap:

noun

(direct meaning)

↓

adjective → adjective

(relative) (high-quality)

The adjective no longer inherits the "ready-made" metaphor of the motivating name. The metaphorical meaning arises directly in the adjective itself and is based on comparison with the object from which the adjectival derivative was formed.

V. V. Lopatin proposed to designate the phenomenon when a figurative meaning that is absent from a motivating word appears only in a motivated one with the term "metaphorical motivation", see ^[16].

Let's show how the lacunar model is implemented using the examples of the words operetta and operetta.

Dictionary interpretations:

1) the direct meaning of the noun operetta: "A musical comedy work combining vocal and instrumental music with dance and with a text, part of which is sung and part is pronounced in ordinary speech" ^{[15, vol. II, p. 622]};

2) there is no metaphorical meaning of the noun operetta in the dictionary.;

3) the direct (relative) meaning of the adjective operetta: ‘one that refers to an operetta’;

4) the metaphorical (qualitative) meaning of the adjective operatic: "peren. One that cannot be taken seriously, similar to what happens in an operetta" ^{[15, vol. II, p. 622]}.

Usage examples:

1) noun in the direct meaning: operetta theater;

2) a noun in a metaphorical sense: – ;

3) adjective in relative (direct or metonymic) meaning: operetta composer;

His 12-year-old heroine was looking for "the first pioneers", discovered the uniqueness of destinies, an unsightly trumpeter from an operetta orchestra turned out to be a heroic man. (Rossiyskaya gazeta. 14. 07. 2025); … In a city that had never had not only an opera house, but even an operetta theater, Markin conceived the idea of creating an Opera Academy. (Labor. 19. 03. 2024);

4) adjective in a qualitative metaphorical meaning:

The parade of loyalty to Washington with the formation and banners turned out to be slightly operatic. Merz, Starmer, Macron, Guterres and two dozen other political leaders played the role of extras surrounding Trump. (Rossiyskaya gazeta. 15.10.2025); There was a scandal here, too. The press characterized the contest as "operatic", "cronyistic", called it "sheer rabid cynicism" and hinted at "family relations" (Kommersant. 05/27/2025); The people of Kiev were particularly amused by the fact that in the early days of Petliura's rule, operetta gaydamaks walked along Khreshchatyk with ladders, climbed on them, took down all Russian signs and hung Ukrainian ones instead. (Z. Prilepin. The Z coordinate).

So, in the absence of a metaphorical meaning, the motivating name has the following ratio of noun and adjective meanings:

Operetta (a genre of musical comedy; a work of this genre)

Operetta (one that refers to an operetta) – operetta (one that cannot be taken seriously)

More examples of the lacunar model implementation:

Poster (drawing with explanatory text)

Poster (one that refers to a poster) – poster (bright, catchy, simple)

The surface (the outside of something)

Superficial (one that refers to the surface) – superficial (unfounded; unable to understand the essence of the matter)

Malachite (mineral, ornamental stone)

Malachite (one that refers to malachite) – malachite (bright green, with dark lines)

Some relative adjectives develop several secondary qualitative meanings that fit into different models.

For example, the adjective honey, which is used in at least two metaphorical meanings.

Russian Russian Dictionary is one of them, recorded in the four-volume Dictionary of the Russian Language edited by A. P. Evgenieva (MAS) and in the Great Explanatory Dictionary of the Russian Language edited by S. A. Kuznetsov (BTS).: "2. Mawkish, sweetly gentle, flattering" ^{[17, p. 529]}.

Examples of usage: And it's not just a dance of two that unfolds before us – a barely restrained passion with a beating heart, the expectation of honey happiness and long-lasting love... Kochetkova. Let's remember: Pavel Vasiliev. 2019); And in the novel "The Burn" Vasily Pavlovich will simply combine himself with Voznesensky into one writer Panteley, a "verbiage with a decadent skeleton key" who swears to sing in his honey-colored baritone... (I. Virabov. Andrey Voznesensky. 2015) [NKR]; Zoya also pretended to be naive and incomprehensible through and through, as if she did not catch a reason for honey praises... (A. Vinogradov. Coffee for three).

Another metaphorical colorative meaning is noted in the Explanatory Dictionary of the Russian Language with the inclusion of information about the origin of words, edited by N. Yu. Shvedovaya Street (SS): "2. Golden yellow, amber, the color of honey" ^{[18, p. 437]}.

Examples of uses: ... Yellow, summer days, wax candles in gnarled green hands, transparent honey tears on gnarled, sturdy trunks, cuckoos counting the years. (E. Zamyatin. Russia. 1923); At first we walked along a path through a birch grove flooded with honey and amber sunset light, stepping over the roots of trees. (M. Baru. The samovar of pilot Voronin. 2016) [NKRNA].

The first meaning corresponds to the metaphor of the motivator of honey: "Razg. About what is extremely pleasant (to taste, hear, etc.)" ^{[17, p. 527]}. The second one lacks such a correspondence, since the word honey does not have the meaning of ‘honey color'.

Thus, these subjective metaphorical meanings belong to two types of the model.:

Honey (substance) – honey (about something pleasant)

Honey (the kind that refers to honey) – honey (pleasant; sugary; flattering)

Honey (substance)

Honey (the one that refers to honey) – honey (honey colors; yellow)

A metaphor can be based on semantic components that reflect the real properties of the object. These semes are common to the original and metaphorical meanings. G. N. Sklyarevskaya calls such a transfer a motivated linguistic metaphor. The criterion for belonging to the type of motivated, according to G. N. Sklyarevskaya, is the data from explanatory dictionaries: the presence in the interpretations of the original and metaphorical meanings of "the same or semantically similar word" ^{[19, p. 53]} or the presence in the interpretation of the metaphorical meaning of a comparative phrase connecting the meanings with each other. For example, in the literal and figurative meaning of the word monk, there are components of an ‘ascetic lifestyle' ^{[19, p. 54]}.

An adjectival metaphor is often based on the idea of the obvious features of a reference object named by a producing name. Such features include, for example, color. Colorative meanings develop in adjectives formed from the names of plants, fruits, substances, etc. Here are some examples.

Ink (a solution of coloring agent used for writing)

Ink (one that refers to ink) – ink (one that has the color of ink; very dark)

Mustard (a plant with yellow flowers and fruits)

Mustard (one that refers to mustard) – mustard (one that has the color of mustard; yellowish-brown)

Carrot (a plant; its root crop is orange)

Carrot (one that refers to carrots) – carrot (one that has the color of carrots; orange)

Lilac (ornamental shrub)

Lilac (one that refers to lilac) – lilac (one that has the color of lilac; pale purple)

Brick (rectangular block of baked clay)

Brick (one that refers to a brick) – brick (one that has the color of a brick; brownish-red)

In the colorative sense, ideas about the most well-known, often found, prototypical color of an object are objectified: ink is usually called something dark blue, purple or black (although ink comes in different colors), lilac - pale purple (although lilac varieties vary in color), brick – brown-red (although brick can be and white).

The color values of adjectives formed from the names of minerals are described by E. Yu. Vaulina ^[20]. The author emphasizes that the most common or commonly used color in jewelry is usually chosen to indicate the color.: beryl – green-blue; almadine – dark cherry or burgundy, etc. ^{[20, pp. 6-7]}.

The formation of secondary qualitative meaning can also occur on a connotative basis.

Connotations are considered to be "typical associative-evaluative signs associated with a certain concept for a given culture" ^{[21, p. 166]}. As Yu.D. Apresyan emphasized, connotations are firmly fixed to the word in its direct meaning, but they do not enter into it and "can become part of its meaning in figurative meanings" ^{[22, p. XXII]}. In other words, those signs that belong to the sphere of connotations of the original meaning, when metaphorized, become part of the family, forming a secondary meaning.

For example, the words cave evoke associations with prehistoric times, associated in our view with savagery, primitiveness, lack of culture, rudeness, cruelty, etc. In the language, in the absence of a substantive metaphor, the adjectival cave metaphor is used, in which these signs are objectified. Cf.: cave views (conditions, behavior). And also:

The representative of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs also called the actions of the Berlin police "an act of cave Russophobia and political censorship." (Kommersant. 11. 06. 2025); This manifestation of vandalism is the result of 35 years of cave-dwelling anti-communism, in the name of which a large number of practices and symbols used by Nazism and fascism have been rehabilitated and normalized... (Rossiyskaya gazeta. 08/20/2025); On the one hand ... interest in Orthodox content is growing... And on the other hand, part of the audience continues to be captivated by anti-religious myths, cave atheism, and the occult. (Rossiyskaya gazeta. 17.11.2025); ... And what kind of normal person in recent times would want to read ancient myths, as, indeed, to read at all – this cave habit has become superfluous in an era when decrepit words have given way to daring numbers. (M. Simonyan. There was a Word in the beginning – there will be a Number at the end).

The word cat has connotations of 'grace', 'flexibility', 'gentleness', 'affectionateness', 'laziness', etc., realized in the metaphorical meaning of the adjective feline: "such as a cat" [MAS, vol. II, p. 117]. Cf. feline movements applied to humans. And also:

There appeared in her some kind of insinuating feline softness and that stupefying femininity that acts stronger than beauty. (I. Muravyova. A philistine in the nobility. 1994) [NKR]; He jumped up, walked around the room, stepping softly with a feline gait. (D. Granin. Zubr. 1987) [NKR]; The actor who played the concubine was especially good: bleached, rouged, with a beautiful gypsy profile, he showed so much passion and feline grace in the seduction scene of the king that the audience was genuinely excited. (N. Gumilev. The African diary. 1913) [NKR]; The surface of the container had already caught fire when Kostya flew up to it with a cat's leap and threw it under the waterfall. (I. Volsky. Damn them. Pantyukhina: will there be a new world record? 1994); Grandmother, Dolores Garcia, passed on to all of us, her heirs, the Castilian burning darkness in her pupils and hair color, and the feline languor that turns into an explosive temperament. (S. Burlachenko. Daredevil. 2019) [NKRNA].

An individual author's connotative metaphor has a special expressiveness, for example:

An hour later, after trying on a plasticine smile that hurt somewhere in the bridge of his nose, he pressed the bell. (Z. Prilepin. Black monkey); Mitya's heart was pounding with some kind of locomotive power, and it seemed to him that it was going to jump out now... (S. Volkova. Crafty surgery); When the story was over, they both sat in silence for a minute, running their fingers along the edges of the saucers, and only the cenari in the cages cut the silence of the coffee shop in two with cherubic voices. (S. Volkova. The great love of Olenka Dyakova); The discussion strayed into a dead end several times, and then mothballed mutual reproaches for the murdered Mikhoels, the deported peaceful Chechens, the shot Che Guevara, the Second Front, opened when Berlin could be spat on. (Y. Polyakov. Love in an era of change); – Which local drink would you recommend? – "Imeruli," Bashashkin replied with memoir sadness. (Y. Polyakov. Prisoner of the fifth breakwater).

Conclusion

So, the features of the metaphorization of a relative adjective are determined by its word-formation production. The qualitative metaphorical meaning of an adjective is motivated not only by its direct relative meaning, but also by the metaphorical meaning of the generating name.

The formation of an adjectival metaphorical meaning can be explained using a derivational-semantic model that includes four lexico-semantic components. Semantic connections in such a model can be described in terms of reflected polysemy: the relationship between the meanings of an adjective reflects, inherits the relationship between the meanings of a noun – a word–forming motivator. Cf.: top (pine trees) and top (creativity) - top (branches) and top (works).

The derivational-semantic model of quality has a gap if the motivating name does not have a metaphorical meaning in the language. So, the word superficial has a figurative meaning of ‘insignificant, unfounded’ in the absence of a metaphor for the word surface.

The subjective metaphor arises on the basis of ideas about the real properties of the reference object (inky darkness), as well as on the basis of connotations (cave Russophobia).

The derivational-semantic model, which operates regularly in the language, continuously generates new qualitative meanings. The semantic neologisms atmospheric (performance), breakthrough (technology), etc. represent an object for further research of the semantic derivation of the adjective.

The article is published in the version approved by the reviewers (after receiving a positive review recommending the manuscript for publication) with corrections made by the author (after receiving the editor’s comments, if any).
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