Formation of the modern media landscape of the Arab Republic of Egypt

Tsao Ziqing Graduate student; Institute of Higher School of Journalism and Mass Communications; St. Petersburg State University 199034, Russia, Saint Petersburg, Universitetskaya nab., 7/9 caoziqing01@gmail.com Teplyashina Alla Nikolaevna Doctor of Philology Professor; Institute 'Higher School of Journalism and Mass Communications'; St. Petersburg State University 199034, Russia, Saint Petersburg, Universitetskaya nab., 7/9 NikonovS@mail.ru Melnik Galina Sergeevna ORCID: 0000-0002-1712-6836 Doctor of Politics Professor; Institute 'Higher School of Journalism and Mass Communications'; St. Petersburg State University 199034, Russia, Saint Petersburg, Universitetskaya nab., 7/9 s.nikonov@spbu.ru

Lukin Stanislav Sergeevich PhD in Politics Associate Professor; Institute 'Higher School of Journalism and Mass Communications'; St. Petersburg State University 199034, Russia, Saint Petersburg, Universitetskaya nab., 7/9 NikonovS@mail.ru

The purpose of the study is to show the trends and features of the functioning of the media in the Arab Republic of Egypt (hereinafter Egypt). The problem of the research lies in the complexity and multidimensional nature of the media, due to the interaction of legal, social and political factors. Egypt, with its rich media history and influence on the Arab world, demonstrates a number of unique features and challenges affecting the state and development of the media. As N. A. Uspenskaya notes, "the spirituality of the Egyptian nation is based on the Muslim tradition. Speaking of national identity, one should not forget that the mentality of the people varies depending on socio-economic, political and other conditions" ^{[1, p. 693]}.

Egypt's national identity has never merged into an undifferentiated Arabism, as the country is shaped by its geography, history, dialect, and customs ^{[2; 3]}.

The history of the Egyptian press has more than two hundred years of history and originated during the time of the Ottoman Empire. The first newspaper "Le Courier de L'egypt" ("Egyptian Courier") was published immediately after the start of the Egyptian campaign in August 1798, and soon the quarterly magazine "La Decade Egyptienne" ("Egyptian Decade") appeared. Currently, Egypt has a well-developed media system, rich information resources and potential: more than 500 newspapers are published in the country, more than 42 national radio companies and 98 television stations operate. The country is active in the use of Internet technologies and is interested in expanding its online audience. The global overview report records that the number of social media users in Egypt at the beginning of 2023 is equivalent to 41.4 percent of the total population" ^[4].

The subject of this study is the peculiarities of the formation of the media system of the Arab Republic of Egypt, its dynamics.

The novelty lies in the fact that new empirical data is being introduced into scientific circulation, as well as contextual knowledge about the Arab region in general, and Egypt in particular. The article fills a gap in the scientific literature on the analysis of factors influencing the state and development of media in Arab countries.

Qi Ji ^[5], who specializes in media research, Mostafa Essam Shaat ^[6], who examines the legal aspects of the topic, and Salma Khamis ^[7], who addresses changes in the Egyptian media landscape, turned to the study of the media of the Arab Republic of Egypt at various times.

Of scientific interest is an article by B. I. Hamad devoted to the history and politics of Egypt, the development of the press since the conquest of the country by Napoleon, the new kingdom in Egypt, the existence of a constitutional monarchy and the struggle of the press of three political forces – the king, the Wafd party and the British occupation. The focus is on the period of the emergence of political traditions in the coverage of events, when the press was focused on two important national issues – independence and the Constitution. The work of the media during the reign of Muhammad Ali (1805-1848) is covered in detail, when changes took place in Egypt more dynamically than in other parts of the Ottoman Empire ^[8].

Various sources mention such dynamic periods of Egyptian media development as the Mubarak rule (1981-2011), which gave relief to the "independent" press working with private capital. However, media experts called this a mistake, because in the conditions of the economic crisis and the corrupt elite, the society did not have a common ideological base, which subsequently led to the overthrow of the regime ^[9].

Among foreign sources, it is worth highlighting the works of Rasha Allam, consistently reflecting all historical and modern aspects of the development of the Egyptian media. Thus, the article "The Egyptian Media Governance Framework: Gains and...." is devoted to the analysis of changes in the Egyptian media industry, the practice of regulatory authorities and the application of media laws. The author argues: "the publication of laws by itself does not fully ensure the independence of the media, since the practice and method of their implementation are important ... in countries with economies in transition, such as Egypt, there is a gap between the spirit of the new laws inspired by Western models and their application, which is still controlled by the old authoritarian impulses" ^[10].

The author critically assesses the import of models and the extent to which the current "management system ensures the independence of the media, taking into account the changing media landscape and the political and economic environment." The article "From flabbiness to tightness" deals with the restructuring of the public broadcasting system in Egypt ^[11].

The author reflects on how unexpected political changes in the Arab region affected the media sphere; political and commercial pressure exerted on the media undermined their credibility and led to a crisis of trust ^[12].

In the same vein, the problem of freedom and restrictions in the activities of the media in the Arab region in general, and in Egypt in particular, is being investigated. The article by Rasha Allami El Hollyfield, based on expert interviews, examines how organizational factors influence the implementation of analytics tools in the editorial decision-making process. The authors conclude that professional journalistic judgments are inferior to audience preferences, and managers of news organizations working with digital technologies have proven to be the most open to using audience opinions ^[13].

I.V. Vodianov's scientific works devoted to the history of the formation of the media of the Arab Republic of Egypt (ARE) and focusing on changes in state policy in the field of mass media after the revolutionary events of 2011 and 2013 have methodological significance for this study ^[14].

Of scientific interest are works analyzing the legal aspects of regulating Egyptian media. Researcher A.I. Kapayeva's article draws attention to the fact that freedom of speech (Article 47) and freedom of the media (Article 48), guaranteed by the Egyptian Constitution, are proclaimed in Egypt. At the same time, the laws allow blocking blogs of people who spread false messages through their social media accounts, and legal proceedings are permissible ^[15]. In 2017, 62 websites were blocked, including Daily Sabah, Medium, Al Jazeera, The Huffington Post and Mada Masr, as well as opposition websites such as El-Badil.

Egypt, located in the northeastern part of Africa, occupies a strategically important position in Northeast Africa and the Arab world, characterized by unique geopolitical, demographic and political conditions. As one of the most populous States on the African continent, Egypt has approximately 117 million inhabitants. The demographic structure is characterized by a high proportion of the young population: 85.7% of citizens are between the ages of 0-49 ^[16]. In 2020, the level of urbanization in Egypt reached 43%, with an annual increase of about 2% ^[17].

In recent years, Egypt has faced various national security challenges, including terrorist threats, political instability, and the influence of foreign thinking that can undermine public order and social cohesion. In response to these challenges, the Government is implementing a number of measures to control media resources. These measures are not only aimed at protecting national security, but also at creating a more controlled information space.

In Egypt, the work of the media is regulated by various laws and regulations. One of the key acts is the Law on the Press and Mass Media, which was put into effect in 2018. This law replaced the current law on the press of 1995 ^{[18, p. 60]}. According to this law, the media have the right to freedom of speech, but with a number of reservations that relate to the protection of national interests, security and public order. These restrictions raise concerns among journalists and human rights defenders, who claim that they are being used to stifle criticism of the government and freedom of expression. According to E. A. Kutukova, "the imprisonment of journalists in Egypt occurs constantly and sometimes for no good reason. Since 2011, the number of convicted journalists in the country has increased alarmingly, and not only Egyptian, but also foreign media workers are on trial" ^{[18, pp.59-61]}.

The Egyptian Constitution, adopted in 2014, became the basis for media regulation. Chapter 2 of the Constitution, "Rights and Freedoms," guarantees the freedom to create mass media and protects the right to freedom of expression. At the same time, the Constitution establishes that these freedoms may be regulated in the interests of national security and public order.

The Law on Combating Terrorism (2015) is also of significant importance in the context of media regulation, as it criminalizes the dissemination of information that may be perceived as support for terrorism ^{[14, p. 131]}. In Egypt, the activities of the media are controlled by several authorities. Among them:

– The National Council for Media Regulation: it is responsible for regulating audiovisual media and overseeing the licensing of TV channels and radio stations.

– Ministry of Information: this body plays an important role in shaping the state information policy and monitoring the implementation of the law on mass media.

One of the main reasons for the monopolization of the media in Egypt is the strong influence of the State on the media. The government controls many key TV channels and print media. Political parties and groups seek to control media resources to promote their interests ^{[19, p. 41]}.

Since 2011, after the events that ousted President Hosni Mubarak from the leadership, Egypt has witnessed a sharp increase in digital media. Classical media such as newspapers and television began to lose their audience as more and more people turned to online resources. Facebook is recognized as extremist and banned in Russia ^[20], according to a study conducted in 2022, about 50% of Egyptians receive news through social networks such as Facebook. Social media in Egypt has become a platform for citizen journalism, allowing ordinary people to post news and share events in real time. Social media users easily spread information about protests, social movements, and other events. Examples of the use of social media in the 2011 protests demonstrate how quickly information can spread and immobilize the population.

There are many media outlets in Egypt today, including television channels, radio stations, newspapers, and online resources.

The main features of the media structure in Egypt ^[21]:

1. Television: Egyptian television networks such as ERTU (Egyptian Radio and Television) and private channels are the leading sources of information. Television remains the main source of news for a wide audience. However, many channels are under state control ^{[22, p. 88]}.

Television remains one of the main sources of information for most Egyptians. Among the most popular TV channels are:

– Al Jazeera: Although this channel is based in Qatar, it is very popular in Egypt and is known for its analytical programs and independent coverage of events. Al Jazeera Arabic covers both local and international news and is often criticized by the Egyptian authorities for its selectivity.

- Al Mehwar: one of the most popular private TV channels, which offers a variety of content, including news, talk shows and entertainment programs. Al Mehwar often focuses on local events and issues.

– DMC: This TV channel is a platform for news, entertainment and talk shows, as well as actively participates in discussions on important social issues, which makes it popular among the younger generation.

2. Print media: Despite the decline of print media worldwide, Egypt continues to publish many newspapers and magazines. The most famous of them are Al-Ahram, Al-Akhbar and Al-Masry Al-Youm. Almost all the press is printed at one of the seven state printing houses. There are very few independent newspapers in the country, as it is difficult and costly to obtain a media permit. As in many democracies, print publications have often been and are subject to covert censorship, especially if they criticize the government ^{[18, pp. 60-61]}.

Despite the development of digital platforms, print media still play a significant role. Some of the most prominent newspapers include:

– Al-Ahram: One of the oldest and most famous newspapers in Egypt, founded in 1875. Al-Ahram covers a wide range of topics, from politics to economics and culture.

– Al-Shorouk: This newspaper entered the market later, but quickly gained popularity due to its independent news coverage and analysis of current events.

– Youm7: This is a daily newspaper that attracts readers' attention through relevant news and articles on various topics, from sports to political commentary.

3. The Internet and social networks: With the deep penetration of the Internet (including mobile Internet) into society, the number of social media users in Egypt is constantly growing. During the Covid-19 pandemic, which began in 2020, many began using social media to gain information and express themselves. At that moment, social networks were the only or one of the few ways to communicate with the outside world, which increased the number of their users, as well as the intensity of use. By July 2022, there were 54.7 million Internet users, accounting for 51% of the population. Facebook (Facebook is recognized as extremist and banned in Russia), YouTube, WhatsApp and Twitter are the most popular platforms in the country ^[17].

Facebook platforms (Facebook is considered extremist and banned in Russia) and Twitter have been used to discuss political and social issues, although the government sometimes restricts access to these resources.

4. Radio: Radio remains an important source of information in Egypt, especially in remote areas where Internet access may be limited. Some of the popular radio stations:

– Radio Egypt: A state-owned radio station offering news and programs related to culture, music and society.

– Nagham FM: A private radio station that is in demand for its entertainment program and music broadcasts.

The advantages of working with the media in Egypt:

1. Rich variety of content: The Egyptian media sphere offers a wide range of information, from news programs and analytical programs to feature films and entertainment shows. This diversity makes it possible to satisfy the interests of different segments of the population and promotes cultural exchange.

2. Historical significance: The Egyptian media has a long and interesting history, starting with the first printed newspaper in the Arab world, Al-Waqai al-Misriyya in 1828. This legacy contributes to the formation of a unique media landscape in which traditions are combined with modern formats ^[23].

3. Technology penetration: The development of the Internet and social media has opened up new horizons for the Egyptian media. Online platforms have expanded the audience and allow journalists to provide independent coverage of events. Social media also provides an opportunity for citizens to participate in the process of spreading information and commenting on news.

4. Active participation in public processes: Egyptian media play an important role in activating civil society. They draw attention to social and political issues, promote dialogue between different groups, and promote public awareness.

Established in 2016, the Supreme Council for Media Regulation (HSRSC) has become a key government body responsible for overseeing and regulating all types of media in Egypt, including television, radio, print, and digital platforms. It is this body that is unofficially considered a censorship body. The main task of the council is to ensure compliance with media laws, protect national interests and support freedom of speech within the framework of current legislation. HSRSC is also actively involved in shaping media policy and strategies aimed at media development. This includes:

1. Licensing and Control: The Council oversees the licensing process for various media organizations and monitors compliance with quality standards and ethical standards.

2. Content Regulation: The HSRSC monitors content that is published or broadcast in the country and has the authority to intervene in cases of violations of the law, including the dissemination of false information or violations of individual rights.

3. Support for journalists: The Council initiates programs to support and protect the rights of journalists, which is especially important in the context of growing pressure on free media ^[24].

The National Press Committee and the National Media Affairs Committee also play an important role in media regulation in Egypt. The National Press Committee focuses on the regulation of print media, including newspapers and magazines. He is responsible for the registration of printed publications, as well as for monitoring their activities in order to comply with legislation and ethical standards. The National Media Affairs Committee covers a wider range of issues related to audiovisual media. He has the authority to regulate radio and television broadcasting, as well as digital platforms. Both committees work in close cooperation with the Supreme Council for Media Regulation, providing an integrated approach to the regulation and control of the information space.

With the growing influence of social media, the Egyptian government has become more active in controlling online content. Emergency measures include blocking websites that contain information deemed to threaten national security. The establishment of "blacklists" of websites and monitoring systems allows the government to quickly respond to any information that, in its opinion, may cause a public outcry or, at the same time, contribute to destabilization.

In response to the threats of disinformation and propaganda, the Egyptian Government is strengthening government information programs. Providing citizens with up-to-date and verified information helps to form a stable opinion and counteract disinformation. The programs are aimed at improving the media literacy of the population, which is important for the formation of critical thinking among citizens ^{[1, pp. 693-697]}.

Thus, the mass media system in the global south, and in particular in countries such as Egypt, is facing special challenges and adaptation to local conditions. These problems are often rooted in historical, political, social, and economic contexts, which affects the way the media operates. Measures to control media resources in Egypt are an important tool in combating threats to national security. It is important to find a balance between ensuring security and protecting human rights, which remains an urgent task for Egyptian society and the State.