The influence of the ideas of Lao Tzu, Sun Tzu and Shen Buhai on the formation of management practices in ancient China

Yui Tszyan Postgraduate student; Faculty of Economics; Lomonosov Moscow State University 119234, Russia, Moscow, Leninskie gory str., 1, p. 46 JiangYu11@yandex.ru

Introduction

In recent years, the historical view of China has attracted increasing attention from researchers, due to significant changes in the country's political and economic situation. Topics related to the managerial traditions of China are becoming relevant not only for specialists in the field of history, but also for management and business. The works of authors such as N.A. Efimenko, who studies the influence of the political situation on educational materials ^{[6] [7]}, and A.M. Pastukhov, who analyzes the military history of China ^[16], emphasize the importance of the historical context for understanding modern China. It is also worth noting the theoretical studies of L. Xiao concerning taxation ^[22], and the practical aspects of personnel management considered by T.A. Soltitskaya and C. Bo ^[19].

Historical and philosophical aspects of management principles

The foundations of managerial interaction and activity are based on the principles of management, which, from the standpoint of psychological practice, represent key cognitive positions formed by managers based on their personal experience. These principles have a direct impact on leadership style and decision-making process, as they express beliefs accumulated over years of practice. However, despite their importance, managers rarely fully realize the fundamental postulates of management, and they most often manifest themselves in the form of intuitive decisions (a practice based on many years of experience). Professional intuition, although it plays an important role in management, is not enough to achieve high results. Consequently, in order to increase the effectiveness of managerial interaction and activity, it is necessary to consciously study these principles, which contributes to the formation of a professional worldview of a manager ^{[4, p. 26]}.

The study of the basics of management becomes especially important within the framework of management theory, in which such well-known scientists as F. F. became pioneers in the field of management principles. Taylor ^[23], A. Fayol ^[24] and M. Weber ^[2]. Their research laid the foundation for modern management concepts that are still used in practice. Most works related to management psychology analyze concepts that arose at the end of the 19th century, however, it should be borne in mind that management ideas have much older roots.

One of the most significant examples of ancient management theories can be found in the treatises of ancient China. The development of writing provided an immediate opportunity to preserve these works, thanks to which Chinese thinkers such as Lao Tzu and Sun Tzu left an important legacy for future generations. These philosophical works, such as The Tao te Ching and the classic work The Art of War, not only enriched the worldview of the Chinese rulers, but also laid the foundations of military management doctrinal theory. Taoism, as M.R. McNeilly noted, "being one of the key philosophical systems of China, combined the components of philosophical knowledge, religious canons, science and mysticism, which made it an important part of the management process" ^{[13, pp. 32-35]}.

In addition to philosophical teachings, an important aspect of the development of managerial thought in China has been the influence of constant internal wars and internecine strife. These factors contributed to the development of strategies (the combat plan), and the strategies themselves were considered as martial arts and their philosophy, which was reflected in management practice. Treatises such as Han Feizi and the works of Shen Buhai are vivid examples of how the experience of ancient Chinese thinkers was used to form a management system ^{[24, p. 12]}.

Thus, the foundations of management principles, which are formed under the influence of both personal experience of managers and age-old philosophical traditions, create a kind of bridge between intuitive decisions and conscious strategies. This transition to meaningful management becomes obvious if we turn to ancient sources, where, along with psychological practice, the ideological foundations laid down in the treatises of ancient China are revealed.

Special attention in ancient Chinese doctrine is paid to the idea of "nonviolent actions" or "non-action", which, contrary to direct interference in processes, presupposes the creation of conditions for the natural and autonomous action of subordinates.

The principle of nonviolent action in the Ancient Chinese doctrine of Governance

One of the central provisions of ancient Chinese theoretical approaches to the doctrine of governance is the basis of "nonviolent actions" - "non-action". Unlike direct intervention in ongoing processes, this principle implies the creation of such conditions in which the head does not directly participate in the activity, but controls it indirectly. For example, in the teaching "The Way and its Power" it is stated that a person with real knowledge does not show it in public and does not seek to demonstrate his skills openly. This means that the head should avoid excessive interference in the activities of his subordinates ^{[4, pp. 43-45]}.

The idea of "nonviolent action" is vividly presented in a metaphor where the leader is likened to the captain of a ship moving under sail: he does not control the oars, but under his hidden and sensitive control everything goes as it should. This concept emphasizes the importance of a leader allowing his subordinates to act in accordance with natural laws without directly interfering in their processes. Thus, subordinates work effectively without feeling pressure from management.

The basis of "nonviolent action" also includes the idea that rewards and punishments should not depend on the mood or favor of the ruling person. The teaching of Huai Nan Tzu emphasizes that if people receive rewards or punishments in accordance with their actions, they realize that the result of their actions does not depend on the favor of the leadership, but is a consequence of their own achievements or failures ^{[14, pp. 97-99]}.

This approach to management — avoiding direct interference and creating conditions for independent performance of duties — allows us to look at the image of the ideal leader in the ancient Chinese tradition. This image is based not only on the principle of "nonviolent action", but also on the idea of invisible power, when the ruler retains his influence without overt presence and demonstration of force.

The ideal leader: invisible power and its manifestations

The best leader is the one whose presence is noticed by subordinates only through his existence. People carry out their personal obligations not out of fear of punishment or in the hope of reward, but because it is their natural duty. The main purpose of such management is to create a system in which everyone acts for the benefit of society, without experiencing external pressure and without seeking personal gain ^{[24, p. 56]}.

One of the key elements of the ancient Chinese tradition of governance was the non-publicity of the ruler. The emperor, according to this principle, should not have been visible or accessible to direct appeal. His name could not even be pronounced in society, which emphasized his superior position and correspondence to the Great Path — the Tao, which, being omnipresent, remained invisible and unmanifested. This philosophical approach was that genuine power and authority do not require demonstration. As noted in the teaching "The Way and its Power", anyone who seeks to attract attention to himself or achieve fame through external manifestations eventually loses authority ^{[4, pp. 25-26]}.

An ideal leader is precisely a person about whom the population is aware only by the fact of his existence, without the need for public events or emotional appeals. In the ancient Chinese state, people recognized power only through the results of the ruler's actions, without observing him at festivals or other public appearances. At the same time, the European custom of power was often associated with the holding of spectacular events, such as secular carnivals or ceremonial receptions, which aimed to strengthen the image of the leader through presentation - a demonstration of his greatness. The Chinese model, on the contrary, assumed that the true power of the ruler should be proved not by words and ostentatious ceremonies, but by the results of real management ^{[4, pp. 19-21]}.

However, despite the invisibility of the ruler, his authority still had to be maintained through the observed results. This paradox was solved in the Chinese tradition by enlisting worthy advisers, known as "Xian ren". Such an adviser not only confirmed the wisdom of the ruler, but the very fact of his appearance served as a symbol that the state was run by competent people. Thus, the presence of an able adviser strengthened the ruler's power without the need for public demonstrations of his power.

Wise rulers in China avoided ostentatious power, relying on competent and respected advisers. This not only confirmed their leadership qualities, but also allowed them to remain invisible, conforming to the ideals of the Tao. This was the uniqueness of the Chinese management model, which was radically different from European approaches to demonstrating strength and power ^{[13, p. 37]}.

The meaning of "chance" in the management practice of Chinese philosophy

In the Chinese culture of managerial relations, special importance is attached to the concept of "chance", which is emphasized by the recognized expert on China V. V. Malyavin. Chinese wisdom, unlike other philosophical systems, focuses on the art of determining the right moment when to act or remain calm. The question "when?" is the focus of Chinese philosophers. Researcher Tang Zhen, who lived in the XVII century, noted that "chance" is a rare opportunity that can affect the outcome of life situations, whether it is success or failure. His approach to the situation emphasizes the need for instant reaction, regardless of the circumstances in which the case arises. Chinese tradition teaches that it is unacceptable to miss this moment, since it may not happen again ^{[15, pp. 13-15]}.

The concept of "chance" in Chinese philosophy is described as the contact of a person within the framework of her destiny. This moment in time, when the outcome of future events is being decided, requires constant readiness from the sage. A wise person should be able to act on time, but not just by chance, but in full accordance with the natural course of life, remaining invisible to others. This corresponds to the ideal of an uncrowned ruler who, like a "dragon hidden in the clouds," rules without showing his presence.

However, recognizing "your case" requires not only an instant reaction, but also the presence of experience and intuition, allowing you to understand when exactly this case represents the very opportunity. A wise manager should be ready not only to "throw away his kuaizi" at lunch, but also to understand that this moment is his chance. To do this, it is important to develop inner feeling and intuition, which allows you to distinguish your case from someone else's and respond to the opportunity in time.

Strategies for successful management by Sun Tzu

The application of the principles outlined in Sun Tzu's treatise "The Art of War" contributes to the successful management of both conflicts and daily activities. The mentioned author, who lived in the 5th-6th centuries BC, left important recommendations for leaders, such as: win without fighting, avoid filled space, occupy empty space, skillfully reward and punish, and also take care of your opponents. These principles, applied in modern management, allow managers not only to interact effectively with subordinates, but also to avoid unnecessary conflicts, finding a solution in a strategic approach. Thus, management becomes not just a technical skill, but also an art that requires constant development ^{[15, pp. 13-15]}.

The ancient Chinese military-administrative tradition of managerial approaches is based on principles where the main idea is victory without direct collision. The most important of these principles is that the most appropriate method to win a military confrontation is to avoid it altogether, seeking instead to transform the enemy into an ally. When it is impossible to achieve such an outcome, the manager should seek to disrupt the enemy's plans by changing his perception of the expected results of the confrontation. If the plans remain unfulfilled, a reasonable strategy would be to destroy the enemy's alliances in order to deprive him of support, which may force him to postpone his intentions. In conditions where fighting becomes inevitable, the main focus should be on weakening the enemy's army to the extent that the battle will be minimized.

In the work "Mastery of Battles" attributed to the thinker Sun Tzu (Sunzi), an approach is proposed in the adaptation and translation of the text by Nikolai Ivanovich Konrad (N.I. Konrad), which focuses on preserving the integrity of both the state and the enemy army. The ideal in waging war is not to completely destroy, but to conquer the enemy without fighting. The treatise argues that the best strategy is to capture fortresses without besieging them and destroy the state without the need for prolonged hostilities ^{[8, pp. 81-84]}. This highlights the importance of minimizing damage and losses.

Especially interesting is the comparison of two strategic games — chess and go, proposed by M. R. McNeilly. Chess, known in the West, aims to destroy the enemy's forces and achieve the frosted position of the king. At the beginning of the game, the chessboard field is full, but as the game progresses, it empties, leaving only a few pieces alive, which symbolizes medieval battle scenes ^{[13, pp. 33, 34-35]}. The opposite approach is used in the ancient Chinese game of go, where players alternately place stones in an effort to capture territory. It is important to avoid excessive stretching of forces and the risk of their capture. The player's goal is to retain and expand his possessions, while minimizing losses. The winner is the one who controls the largest location, having spent a minimum of resources on mastering it.

The philosophy of go is reflected in managerial action, through interaction. A skilful manager does not seek to destroy an opponent, but to achieve strategic superiority, avoiding direct confrontation. The ability to defeat an opponent without an open battle, preserving strength and avoiding unnecessary losses, is an important quality of an experienced leader.

In Sun Tzu's strategic approach, one of the main principles is the idea of avoiding attacking the enemy's strengths. He recommends focusing efforts on weaker positions, which allows not only to minimize losses, but also to achieve results with less cost. This approach is embodied in his famous expression "hitting the empty with a stone". Such a strategy finds expression in the fact that the enemy does not know where to defend himself, and at the time of the attack, a place was chosen that he must necessarily defend ^{[8, pp. 96-96]}. The example of a lion who chooses not the fastest, but the most accessible antelope illustrates an approach to effectively minimizing efforts to achieve goals.

Such a strategy is effectively applied not only in military affairs, but also in the field of management. In particular, managers can apply it by refuting the weakest argument put forward against them, thereby destroying the logical connection and weakening the rest of the claims. In business, it is not uncommon for companies to try to emulate competitors in an effort to take strong positions in which they have succeeded. However, such a strategy is often doomed to failure, since imitation is just a secondary path leading to a second position. True strategic skill, at the skill level, is directly manifested in creating your own unique scheme aimed at exploiting the weaknesses of competitors. This allows you not only to succeed, but also to avoid long and costly conflicts.

Strict control and balance in the management of Shen Buhai

An equally important contribution to the theory of management were the ideas of Shen Buhai (Chinese trad. 申不害, pinyin Shēn Bùhài, 385-337 BC). As an adviser to the ruler of the Han kingdom, he developed a management system based on strict control and regulations. His principles formed the basis of the school of legists, adherents of strict administrative management. The mentioned author made a significant contribution to the formation of the traditional foundations of the "real political process" in China, which consisted in strict regulation of state processes ^[21]. Despite the fact that his book was lost, its ideas have been preserved in various works and encyclopedias, including the works of V. V. Malyavin.

Modern management approaches also require flexibility and the ability to adapt ancient principles to new realities. The strategies formulated by Sun Tzu and Shen Buhai can be successful in a dynamic market, where efficiency is achieved through exploiting the weaknesses of competitors and minimizing costs ^{[15, p. 42]}.

The sound produced by the drum, which is not included in the rank of notes, but controls them, serves as a metaphor for a ruler who does not fulfill the duties of his subordinates, but nevertheless successfully controls their actions. Just as officials do business, the ruler follows a Path that emphasizes their separation of roles and responsibilities. It is important to understand that following orders is an integral part of successful management: if the instructions issued by the ruler remain unfulfilled, then it is difficult to consider him a true leader ^{[14, pp. 117-120]}.

A reasonable ruler pays special attention to issuing orders, trying to avoid situations in which his orders are not executed. This allows us to maintain stability and control over the state. An example of the destruction of the management system can be a jealous wife who easily destroyed the family, which is similar to the destructive actions of an unruly official who can destabilize the whole state.

A ruler should strive to treat all his subjects equally, like a wheel hub, taking weight from each spoke of the wheel. This approach prevents the concentration of power in the hands of one official and allows you to maintain a balance in management. In the case when the duties of subordinates are not clearly distributed, the ruler risks losing control of the situation, since his perceptual organs – eyes and ears – may not record important events ^{[14, pp. 117-120]}.

A researcher from the USA, Henry Crile, who studied the works of the thinker Shen Buhai, identifies several fundamental management principles. The head must remain impartial, arouse the sympathy of his subordinates, subjects, but at the same time keep the management mechanism under constant strict supervision. He should give civil servants freedom in decision-making, which helps to increase their productivity and reduce the burden on the head himself ^{[18, p. 65]}.

Positions should complain depending on the merits and abilities of officials, which supports fairness and stimulates productivity. At the same time, the ruler must act decisively, even if outwardly he seems inactive, which demonstrates the power of power in hidden actions. Modesty in demonstrating one's own power and intelligence is also an important component of management ^{[18, pp. 65-66]}.

It is important that the ruler's orders are realistic and doable. Trust in the authorities is undermined if the orders remain unfulfilled. In addition, it is impossible to allow a situation in which someone can take over at least a small part of the ruler's powers, as this violates the balance and integrity of the state ^{[18, pp. 65-66]}.

Synthesis of Taoist ideas and rigid management

Sh. Buhai, one of the key thinkers of ancient China, created a unique synthesis of Taoist ideas and practical management methods. This approach was so successful that it became the basis for the school of legalism, and significantly influenced the formation of political canons-the traditions of China, the imperial period. Bukhai's views contributed to the establishment of strict rules and laws, which became mandatory for all subjects, ensuring stability and predictability of government.

The basic principles of the Legist system were to establish binding laws, as well as the inevitability of punishments and rewards. All power and information about the events taking place in the state were concentrated in the hands of the ruler, which allowed him to effectively manage his subjects. The Legists also paid great attention to the mystery of the ruler's personality: it was believed that the less known about his true intentions, the more effectively he would be able to lead.

Han Fei, who lived in the III century BC, turned out to be the most outstanding follower and organizer of the concepts of the legists. He developed the key ideas of the school of "legists" and outlined them in his work "Han Fei-tzu", consisting of 55 sections-chapters. Han Fei modified the Taoist principled approach of "non-action", recommending that the sovereign organize such circumstances in which the administration of the country would be so perfect that he would not need to enter into daily tasks. In the treatise, he also described ten typical miscalculations of a leader that can provoke the fall of a power.

Among these mistakes were such as an excessive thirst for small benefits at the expense of big ones, a fascination with personal pleasures such as music and women, and ignoring the advice of loyal advisers. These mistakes could lead to a weakening of power and even to the death of the state. For example, Han Fei emphasized the importance of moderation in relations with the allies, since excessive reliance on them could endanger the integrity of the country ^{[14, pp. 142-143]}.

The school of "lawyers" continued to develop after Han Fei, influencing the political structure of ancient China. The Legists avoided abstract philosophical reasoning, focusing on the real mechanisms of government, which made their ideas especially popular among the ruling circles.

In the concepts proposed by Han Fei, it is important to note that a ruler endowed with power and wisdom always surpasses his advisers in terms of knowledge, which allows him not only to listen to opinions, but also to critically evaluate them. The ability to compare different views and identify the true intentions of his subordinates ensures that he creates more complex and effective plans. This is achieved due to the presence of so-called "proactive knowledge", which helps to destroy and prevent the schemers' plans even before they come to life. This quality of a ruler is an important element of his power.

In the 12th section of the mentioned treatise, the problems of persuasion are revealed, it is emphasized that the main difficulty lies in the ability to understand the heart of someone who needs to be convinced. For example, if the interlocutor aspires to fame, then a reminder of the benefits may cause him to neglect. Similarly, if the person to whom the words are addressed is looking for benefits, the mention of fame can cause distrust. The key to successful persuasion lies in a deep understanding of the true aspirations and motivations of the interlocutor.

According to H. Fei, the managerial ruler is a sage free from vices, which makes him inaccessible to manipulation and intrigue. The effectiveness of his power is enhanced by the atmosphere of fear created by the policy of mutual surveillance of individuals and informers, which allows you to keep subjects under control. Such management methods have been used throughout the history of China, confirming their effectiveness and durability.

The art of human management science is closely related to the management of the army and various organizations, based on similar principles. The Eastern philosophy of leadership provides managers with the opportunity to significantly expand their managerial horizon and develop professional thinking. Although the formation of such thinking is a difficult task, it creates the foundation for business performance and productivity of a manager. It is not surprising that the Chinese ancient management practice is intensively studied in modern educational institutions teaching management, management as an activity, emphasizing its importance and applied value in the conditions of the present time ^{[9, p. 48]}.

Conclusion

In the course of our research, we have traced the evolution of Chinese management thought, starting with ancient philosophical treatises and ending with modern approaches to management. We have seen how the ideas of ancient thinkers such as Shen Buhai and Han Fei laid the foundations for strict administration and effective control, becoming the basis for legalism, which has had a significant impact on governance over the centuries.

The basic principles outlined in the writings of these philosophers, such as the importance of "proactive knowledge", understanding the true motivations of subordinates and the need to create an atmosphere of fear, continue to be relevant in modern realities. Their concepts demonstrate that management is not only a set of tools and methods, but also a deep understanding of human nature and social interactions.

Modern Chinese management practices, adapted to rapidly changing market conditions, actively use the principles developed in the past. This indicates that the rich legacy of China's managerial thought is not only preserved, but also being rethought in the context of global challenges and opportunities.

Thus, the study of the Chinese management tradition represents an important step in understanding not only the historical context, but also modern management strategies that can be successfully applied in various fields of activity. Effective management methods based on ancient principles open up new horizons for success in business and public life, confirming the importance of historical heritage in shaping the future.