Means of expressing stereotypical ideas about Chinese in the Russian language

Kun Weikan ORCID: 0009-0008-1581-0395 Postgraduate student; Department of Russian Language, General Linguistics and Speech Communication; Ural Federal University named after the First President of Russia B.N. Yeltsin Office 312, Lenin str., 51, Yekaterinburg, Sverdlovsk region, 620075, Russia weikan@mail.ru

Introduction

This article is based on the concept of ethnostereotype, which is actively studied in modern humanitarianism, see, for example: ^{[3; 7; 12; 1; 17; 18; 19; 21; 20]} and others . We define ethnostereotypes as simplified and stable representations of representatives of a particular ethnic group ^{[23, p. 231]}, including external anthropological features, behavioral characteristics, personal properties of people who make up a particular nation, their intellectual, mental parameters and much more. In our work, we analyze heterostereotypes as stable representations of another ethnic group ^{[10, p. 108]}.

The aim of the work is to identify and classify linguistic means expressing stereotypical ideas about Chinese in the Russian language, based on the analysis of data from the Russian media.

Materials and methods of research

The research material was publications collected using the Integrum search database for the period from 1991 to 2024, which mention stereotypes about the Chinese ethnic group.

When collecting the material, we started from the classification of linguistic means by which ethnostereotypes are explicated, proposed by L.P. Krysin. In particular, the scientists noted the following language tools.

1. Accentuation of stereotypical features with the help of an amplifying excretory particle even.

2. Comparing the properties of a person with a "reference" representative of a certain ethnic group with the word real.

3. Generalization and hyperbolization of stereotypical properties of the people with the help of quantifier words: everything, everyone, anyone.

4. Phraseological units, proverbs and sayings, including ethnonyms: cunning as a hundred Chinese; Chinese look like one person; one (old) wise Chinese.

5. Comparative phrases with a particle like: hardworking, like the Chinese; polite, like the Chinese.

6. Attributive phrases with adjectives formed from an ethnonym and the names of human properties, or collocations consisting of an attributive adjective and the name of an ethnic group: Chinese wisdom; wise Chinese; hardworking Chinese.

7. Words that negatively evaluate the features of representatives of other ethnic groups in a collapsed form, for example: slang Chinese.

8. L.P. Krysin paid special attention to the explication of ethnostereotypes with the help of anecdotes, which "often exploit popular ideas about a particular ethnic group or any of its groups as plot-forming components" ^{[7, pp. 453-454]}.

The results of the study

E.S. Muchkina notes that "ethnic stereotypes find their expression in various implications that increment the meaning to the original meanings of ethnonymous words" ^{[11, p. 114]}, therefore, we considered stereotypes that are expressed using the ethnonym Chinese / Chinese.

1. Accentuation of stereotypical features with the help of an amplifying excretory particle even.

The particle even in the composition of the expression even the Chinese (1739 doc.) emphasizes both positive and negative connotations of stereotypical representations. The particle even has the following meanings, with the help of which stereotypes are explicated: 1) "Upotr. when reporting something that contradicts what is expected, it is carried out contrary to it. 3) Upotr. to highlight the part of the message that confirms it, giving additional arguments or even more compelling information" ^{[15, p. 178]}.

A stereotype is revealed about the high-tech nature of the country, high labor productivity, and the diligence of representatives of the Chinese ethnic group in the meaning of a "diligent person" ^{[15, p. 1004]}:

Even the Chinese, who are making leaps and bounds in the development of man-made civilization, were worried (Star of Altai; 10/24/2018);

In terms of labor productivity, this company has surpassed even the Chinese (Delovoy Peterburg; 10/25/2018);

According to the employees of the plant, the most powerful forging press in the world stands here, "even the Chinese cannot build such a one!" (Kommersant; 11/19/2010).

With the help of the expression, even the Chinese often explicate the stereotype of poverty and poor living conditions of the Chinese people. The particle even opposes the Chinese to representatives of other ethnic groups:

Meat is an expensive pleasure, even the Chinese cannot always afford beef and mutton (MK; 02/10/2020);

The majority of the people live in conditions in which no European, no American, no Japanese... not even a Chinese could survive (Izvestia; 07.09.2005);

Even a middle-income Chinese prefers not to call a doctor, because it is expensive (Zvezda (Perm); 09/05/2013).

The stereotype of the propensity of the Chinese ethnic group to steal, the propensity of the Chinese to deceive, has a negative character:

In this regard, even the Chinese have become more honest (Golden Horn (Vladivostok); 04/06/2004).

2. Comparing the properties of a person with a "reference" representative of an ethnic group.

In the phrase real Chinese / real Chinese (318 doc.). the adjective real has the following meanings, with the help of which the reference image of the Chinese is recreated: 1) "Authentic, valid, not fake"; 2) "Really what it should be; representing the best example, the ideal of something" ^{[15, p. 496]}.

The hard work of the Chinese and their responsible attitude to work are highlighted:

Real Chinese have good qualifications and an extremely responsible attitude to production (Real estate and construction of St. Petersburg; 06/08/2015).

The expression real Chinese can have an ironic tone when it comes to the stereotypical image of China as a manufacturer of counterfeit goods, fakes for Western brands:

They say that a real Chinese, in addition to traditional fanzines, a son and a tangerine tree, must also grow Abudas sneakers, Nike sweatpants and a Parasonic tape recorder in his lifetime (Surgut Vedomosti; 02/07/2005).

It is worth noting the presence of stereotypes about the Chinese with a neutral semantic coloring. The collocation of the real Chinese is used to recreate the appearance of the Chinese and their traditions:

They expected to see real Chinese, probably in silk robes, with pigtails, with fans and umbrellas in their hands (Rossiyskaya Gazeta; 07/29/2004);

Then I got used to it and already ate with chopsticks, like a real Chinese (Meshcherskaya Side (Ryazan); 09/15/1999).

3. Ethnostereotypes are expressed through generalization and hyperbolization of properties using the quantifier words all, each, any.

The phrases all Chinese (3101 doc.) and every Chinese (1433 doc.), ignoring personal individuality, assert the commonality of common stereotypical features:

The most banal stereotypes: all Chinese look the same, they are short, eat only rice, do not drink milk and alcohol, all are engaged in martial arts (Baikal Dawns; 08/22/2019);

And he smiles happily, like all Chinese people in conversation, and asks affectionately: "Should I wrap it up with you or roast it here?.." (New Siberia; 10/28/2000);

I must say that the opinion that all Chinese people eat only spicy food, solid rice or any exotic things like fried grasshoppers, snakes and cats is nothing more than a stereotype (Echo of the planet; 07/27/2007).

The generalization and hyperbolization of stereotypical features is also verbalized by the phrase every Chinese:

The specificity of Chinese medicine is the prevention of diseases, while they have not yet appeared: every Chinese has been accustomed since childhood to constantly take herbs necessary for health (AiF; 05/31/2006);

Everything is reasonable. They are not based on Orthodoxy, but on Confucianism. A teaching with the idea of expediency at its core. Expediency is what every Chinese has in his head (AiF; 02/11/1999);

Every Chinese knows the beginning of Confucius's "Conversations and Judgments": "Learning and repeating what you have learned is not a joy!" (Friendship of Peoples; 08/15/2012);

In addition, at heart, every Chinese, as I have already said, is an entrepreneur, a businessman, and if there is an opportunity to get rich, he will try not to miss it (Business Magazine Profile; 03/17/2008).

In the phrase any Chinese (370 doc.), the pronominal adjective any also has a "generalizing" (A.M. Peshkovsky) meaning, emphasizing the qualities or actions characteristic of the Chinese people:

Any Chinese produces more than they eat (AiF; 01/20/2016);

Any Chinese knows how to practice and is engaged in Taijiquan – respiratory and motor gymnastics, available here to anyone from young to old ... (Friendship of Peoples; 02/15/2016);

Wake up any Chinese person at night, and he will easily name the "five principles of a virtuous husband," that is, the five basic ethical principles of Confucianism (Izvestia; 10/19/2006).

4. The Russian language is replete with phraseological units and proverbs that reflect various cultural stereotypes. In particular, expressions related to China and the Chinese are often used in everyday speech and have their own specific connotations. Let's consider several such phraseological units: cunning, like a hundred Chinese, Chinese look like one person, one (old) wise Chinese.

Cunning as a hundred Chinese

This phraseology is used to describe a person who shows special cunning and resourcefulness. Comparing a cunning person with a Chinese person highlights the stereotypical idea that the Chinese supposedly have outstanding manipulative abilities. It is important to note that such generalizations do not always reflect reality and can lead to bias ^{[1, p. 119]}. For example:

Her parents: harsh, with the profile of the Roman emperor, Moldovan baba Anya and cunning as a hundred Chinese, Khokhol (People's Newspaper of the Moscow region; 01/23/1999);

As soon as they tried to catch her. And they put crushers, and loops, and traps... Everything is the same — zilch. Cunning as a hundred Chinese (Kargopolye; 08/04/2022).

The Chinese look the same

The expression reflects a widespread intercultural stereotype in the Russian language. It not only demonstrates the excessive generalization of Chinese appearance, but also reveals the "other-race effect" in interracial facial recognition. Studies show that it is usually easier for people to recognize and distinguish faces of their own race, while the ability to recognize faces of other races is reduced ^{[2, p. 143]}. For example:

Everything was going fine, the merchants did not even bother to paste photos in their passports, because they were sure: for our border guards, all Chinese look like one person (Foreigner; 08/13/2002).

The alleged inability of border guards to distinguish between Chinese citizens not only reflects a stereotype, but also points to potential problems in the security system based on racial prejudice.

It turned out that I had confused both the merchant and the tray. Looking down in embarrassment, I got out of the crowd, furiously continuing to repeat to myself: You are all Chinese in the same person (Family; 12/20/2000).

Here, the expression is used as an emotional reaction to a personal inability to distinguish between specific people.

Both examples illustrate how a stereotype can influence interpersonal interactions and even institutional practices.

To overcome such stereotypes, it is necessary to raise awareness about other cultures, form a positive perception of other peoples, as well as increase opportunities for intercultural interaction and dialogue of cultures ^{[16, p. 431; 22, p. 248]}. Positive intercultural contact helps to reduce prejudice and improve intergroup relations.

One (old) wise Chinese

This expression is usually used when revealing the sayings of Chinese thinkers ^{[13, pp. 124-125]} and means that the Chinese have life wisdom, their tendency to philosophize, which is associated with the popularity of Chinese philosophy in Russia. With the help of the phraseology one (old) wise Chinese, philosophical parables are told:

I came across a parable about a wise old Chinese man who once told his friend: "With this example, I wanted to show you the truth of life: if you are looking for only brown things in the room, and only bad things in life, then you will see only them, notice only them, and only they will be to you to be remembered and to participate in your life." (Kuban News; 02/19/2016).

The phraseology one (old) wise Chinese said in some cases is used to convey household wisdom. For example:

A long time ago, a wise Chinese man said: "Chinese cuisine has the same importance in the world of taste sensations as European music in the world of sounds" (Events (Protvino); 03/16/2007).

5. Comparative figures are hardworking, like the Chinese; polite, like the Chinese and smart, like the Chinese reflect social stereotypes about the characteristics of representatives of this nation:

Everyone is neat like the Germans, hardworking like the Chinese, equally prosperous and friendly (Friendship of Peoples; 02/15/1997);

Russians do not try their best to avoid a dispute, like the British or the Germans, do not keep silent, like the Finns and Estonians, do not smile politely, like the Chinese and Japanese (Our contemporary; 08/31/2016).

6. Attributive phrases with adjectives formed from an ethnonym and names of human properties are collocations, combinations of two or more words that occur regularly in the language ^{[4, p. 137]}.

In the Russian media, Chinese wisdom (2183 doc.) is most often used to represent stereotypes about the Chinese and their culture:

As the ancient Chinese wisdom says, "strength wins sometimes, but justice always wins" (Izvestia; 11/03/2021);

There seems to be such a Chinese wisdom: "live fast – die young." Only it hardly makes it easier (MK; 10/29/2002 );

Chinese wisdom says: "Step on the tail of a Tiger, and if it does not bite you, there is an accomplishment ahead" (Business Magazine Profile; 12/22/1997).

The phrase Chinese wisdom is perceived as a symbol of thoughtfulness, emphasizing the philosophical and cultural depth of the Chinese approach to life situations.

To explicate ethnic stereotypes in the Russian media, the wise Chinese collocation is also used (770 doc.). Wisdom as one of the characteristic features of the Chinese people in some contexts can be understood as "a deep mind based on life experience" ^{[15, p. 464]}. The expression wise Chinese, emphasizing the life philosophy and life experience of the nation, stands in the same syntagmatic row with the verbs to speak, affirm, count. Such contexts have a positive connotation:

Wise Chinese say: to feel good, you need to take ten thousand steps a day (Evening Chelyabinsk; 05/14/2010);

Wise Chinese believe that this is the only way our whole life goes (Work; 01/13/2007);

According to the wise Chinese, a long journey of ten thousand li begins with the first step (Hebrew word; 30.09.2009).

Ideas about the wisdom of the Chinese in other contexts are often associated with their cunning and resourcefulness, a tendency to deceive, which is also expressed using the collocation wise Chinese. Such contexts most often have a negative connotation:

Behind friendly curtsies, wise Chinese, as a rule, hide their own interest and are ready to bargain to the last (Rossiyskaya Gazeta; 11/19/2006);

This is how wise Chinese have been deceiving their naive Zaowan for many centuries (Evening Tomsk; 01/29/2014).

The expression hardworking Chinese is frequently used in the Russian media (488 doc.). According to opinion polls, ideas about hard work remain the most common stereotype about the Chinese among Russians ^{[8, p. 238]}. With the help of the expression hardworking Chinese, a positive stereotype is explicated about the hard work of representatives of the Chinese ethnic group, about their high level of efficiency:

The record in this area was set by hardworking Chinese (Izvestia; 08/07/2008);

On the first day of the campaign alone, the hardworking Chinese destroyed about 2 thousand annoying insects (Our Version; 07/16/2007);

All these factors allowed the hardworking Chinese to leave our once economically strong country far behind (South Ural Panorama; 06/26/2004);

Hardworking Chinese made good profits and brought money to the village (Kommersant-Money; 11/16/2015).

7. Words that negatively evaluate the features of representatives of other ethnic groups in a collapsed form. They are often discriminatory and humiliating, for example: Chinese slang.

To explicate stereotypes about the Chinese, the colloquial unit of Chinese is used, formed from an ethnonym, see the interpretations in the dictionaries of colloquial speech: "Chinese – Chinese" ^{[6, p. 58]}; "Pejorative. razg.-snizh. About the Chinese" ^{[14, p. 257]}.

In the media, the word Chinese (329 doc.) is usually used as obsolete:

All this horror began to be personified in those who yesterday were condescendingly, good-naturedly and contemptuously called "hogs", "Chinks", "narrow-eyed" (Friendship of Peoples; 12/15/2022);

Winston Churchill, for example, called the inhabitants of China "Chinks" and refused to give Beijing a seat on the UN Security Council (Profile; 09/23/2009).

On the other hand, the word chinaman has not gone out of use. The Chinese lexeme usually explicates negative stereotypes about the Chinese people. For example, stereotypical ideas about the stupidity, cunning and evil character of the Chinese:

The Japs are both scoundrels and brazen tricksters. Chinese idiots and blockheads (Ogonyok; 08/24/2015);

Even if it is a cunning and evil Chinaman (New World; 03/16/2005).

The function of calling Chinese Chinese implies their use in a syntactically conditioned (in the position of the predicative center), qualification-evaluative meaning ^{[5, p. 25]}, in the function of a pejorative swear word in relation to a non-Chinese:

– You are a layman, your ideal is China, you are a Chinaman! (Nezavisimaya Gazeta; 02/25/2011);

As a child, I was teased by Chinese (Tribune; 03/24/2006).

8. Another common means of explicating stereotypical ideas about the Chinese are jokes ^{[12, p. 148]}. It is jokes that usually reflect the stereotypes that are most ingrained in the mind ^{[9, p. 219]}.

Our material shows that the most common are anecdotes about the multiplicity of the Chinese ethnic group, which usually do not have a negative evaluation color and state in a joking tone the fact of overpopulation of China:

There were even jokes on the Internet that the Chinese have little place on Earth, but they found a way out (Arguments and Facts; 06/23/2004);

As in the old joke about the Chinese: "we break through in small groups, two or three million each" (Profile; 03/29/2004);

As an investment, China is going to invest one hundred million Chinese in Russia (AiF – Far East; 08/15/2018);

When the Chinese fight district by district, the fight is visible from space (Komsomolskaya Pravda (Irkutsk); 04/25/2016);

If a Russian man has to give birth to a son in his lifetime, build a house and plant a tree, then a real Chinese man should plant ten trees and build ten houses in his life — in general, somehow distract himself ... (Kommersant-Money; 05/10/2010).

There are jokes about the low quality of Chinese goods:

The Chinese manager sold his soul to the devil. A week later, she broke down... (AiF; 08.08.2012);

about China as a global producer of goods:

Well, for example, such an anecdote: God created man, and the Chinese created everything else (Komsomolskaya Pravda; 06/16/2011).

The external similarity of the Chinese from the point of view of Europeans is also subject to irony and ridicule:

There is a suspicion that the same athlete is playing for the Chinese (Komsomolskaya Pravda; 08/09/2016).

I work with a guy from China, whose name is Kim, and one day, when we were drinking in a bar, I asked him, "Kim, have you ever been offended that white people say, "All Chinese look the same"? He replied: — Kim is at home now, I am his wife (AiF; 07/31/2019).

Conclusion

The analysis of the ways of linguistic expression of stereotypes about Chinese in the Russian media reveals complex and subtle relationships between language, culture and social cognition. Russian media use various linguistic means to express stereotypes about the Chinese, including comparative constructions, stable phrases, idioms and colloquial expressions. These modes of expression not only reflect the deep-rooted stereotypes in language, but also demonstrate the complexity of intercultural perception. It is noteworthy that these stereotypes include both positive aspects (such as diligence, wisdom) and negative ones (such as cunning and poor quality of goods). This inconsistency highlights the important influence of cultural differences on the formation of stereotypes and reminds us of the importance of expanding cultural exchange and understanding to eliminate prejudice.

The media plays a key role in spreading and reinforcing stereotypes. The repeated use of certain expressions may inadvertently reinforce certain stereotypes. However, we also observe that some units (for example, Chinese) are considered obsolete, which indicates the evolution of stereotypes over time. It is especially noteworthy that jokes are often used to spread stereotypes, which can make them more acceptable and easier to spread. These findings not only reveal the dynamic nature of stereotypes, but also emphasize the importance of critical thinking in the perception of stereotypical information.

The significance of this research goes beyond linguistics and cultural studies, with important implications for intercultural communication between China and Russia. These stereotypes can both promote understanding and cause misunderstandings, so maintaining an open attitude and avoiding excessive generalizations becomes especially important in intercultural communication.