Peculiarities of Adverb Placement in English Sentences (exemplified by the adverb "fairly")

Popova Ekaterina Andreevna ORCID: 0009-0005-1791-4719 PhD in Philology Associate Professor; Faculty of English; Moscow State Linguistic University 119034, Russia, Moscow, Ostozhenka str., 38, p. 1 k9032041936@gmail.com

Introduction

Despite the fixed word order inherent in the English sentence, it is adverbs that are characterized by the greatest flexibility and diversity in terms of syntactic positioning. At the same time, reference and educational literature often does not provide all possible uses of English adverbs, the description of their syntactic characteristics is fragmented and requires reference to different sources.

This article attempts to summarize the available data on the positioning of English adverbs in a sentence. Semantic shifts are considered as the main factor influencing the change of the syntactic position of an adverb. The material of the study was cases of the use of the adverb fairly, recorded in the British National Corpus of English (BNC) ^[1]. The study uses a descriptive method, methods of contextual and syntactic analysis, as well as statistical data processing.

The positioning of an adverb in an English sentence: the main trends

The following typical adverb positions are usually distinguished in an English sentence:

1) the initial position is at the beginning of the sentence;

2) the medial position is between the subject and the predicate;

3) the final position is at the end of the sentence (clauses) ^[2-5].

As an additional position, the use of an adverb directly before the word that it modifies can also be considered ^[6].

The medial position has the following variations if the predicate consists of several components: a) the adverb is placed immediately after the subject; b) the adverb is placed after the first component of the predicate, whether it is an auxiliary verb, a copula verb or a modal verb; c) the adverb is placed after the second or third auxiliary element, closer to the semantic verb or predicative. The most frequent variant is considered to be the use of an adverb after the first element (operator) of the predicate ^{[7; 8]}.

The final position is also characterized by some variability, since the adverb can be located both at the very end of the sentence (clauses) and immediately after the predicate ^{[7; 6]}.

Different semantic classes of adverbs are characterized by different positions in the sentence.

So, for many adverbs of uncertain frequency (usually, never, always, often) and adverbs indicating an indefinite period of time (now, soon), the position between the subject or predicate (or after the first component of the predicate) is typical, for example, We usually go to Scotland in August ^{[2; 4, p. 22]}. Temporary adverbs with a more specific meaning can also be used at the end of a sentence: They will be coming tomorrow ^{[2, p. 505]}. The final position is typical for the adverb yet: It hasn't arrived yet ^{[6; 2, p. 506]}. Sometimes the adverbs of frequency and time can also be used in the initial position for the emphase: Usually I get up early ^{[4, p. 22]}.

For adverbs of place and direction (abroad, upstairs, around, backwards), the most typical position is at the end of the sentence (The children are playing upstairs) ^{[4, p. 24]}.

The adverbs of the mode of action also often occupy the final position: She read the letter slowly ^{[4, p. 23]}. However, in some cases, the adverbs of the way of action can also occur in the middle of a sentence: They seriously considered him for the post. ^{[7, p. 492]}.

Interestingly, in some cases, the adverbs of the mode of action can be placed at the beginning of a sentence; at the same time, they modify not only the predicate, but also the subject. So, Proudly, Mr. Ahmed accepted the award can be paraphrased as Mr. Ahmed was proud to receive the award ^{[7, p. 488]}. In some cases, the orientation of the adverb completely shifts from the action to the subject itself. For example, Wisely, Karen has been answering questions can be paraphrased as Karen was wise to answer the questions, implying that Karen's wisdom lies in saying something in response, although her answers themselves may not have been very smart ^{[9, pp.178-179]}.

Intensifying adverbs, or adverbs of degree, are divided into amplifiers (amplifiers), indicating a high degree of feature (very, entirely, extremely), and adverbs of incompleteness of action or feature, with a weakening meaning (downtoners) (almost, nearly, barely), and are usually in preposition to the word they define (It was almost dark) ^{[7; 4, p. 24]}. However, adverbs of degree that modify verbs can also be at the end of a sentence. The ratio between the middle and final position differs for different adverbs ^{[3; 6]}. The medial position is preferable if there is an addition expressed by a long phrase or an entire subordinate clause. In such cases, as an exception, the adverb may be located after the verb predicate It helps publishers enormously in judging the merits of your song ^{[6, p. 135]}. The adverb enough, modifying an adjective or other adverb, will be in postposition with respect to them: You are not driving fast enough ^{[4, p.185]}. It is also interesting that in some cases the adverb of the incompleteness of an action or feature is placed after the conjunction of the auxiliary verb and the verb to be ^[8].

Emphatic adverbs (actually, really, just, indeed) are usually used in preposition to a defined word, although in some cases postposition is also possible (cf. The play was indeed excellent and The play was excellent indeed) ^{[7, p. 447]}.

Focusing adverbs (even, only, mainly) are usually in the middle position (We are only going for two days) or in a preposition with respect to the modified word (Only you could do a thing like that). However, postposition is possible with such adverbs of this class as alone, too, as well, either (in negative sentences with the particle not) ^{[6; 4, p. 23]}.

Evaluative (unfortunately, lucky) and pragmatic adverbs (frankly, honestly) can be used at the beginning of a sentence. Evaluative adverbs are also characterized by a medial position. When the scope of action is narrowed, they can also be located directly before the modified word (cf. Frankly, this is becoming a joke and this frankly rather unpleasant character) ^{[3, pp. 580, 583; 10]}.

Adverbs indicating a point of view (morally, theoretically, politically) are usually found at the beginning of a sentence and separated by a comma: Politically, this will become very unpleasant. The final position is also acceptable. A medial position is possible, but under the condition of prosodic isolation of this component ^{[3, p. 580]}. However, if they do not refer to the whole sentence, but to a part of it, then such adverbs are placed before the modified word or phrase: a philosophically very naive argument ^{[3, p. 583]}.

Adverbs with modal meaning (certainly, probably, definitely) are more common between the subject and the predicate, although the initial and final position are also possible with appropriate prosodic design ^[3]. For some modal adverbs, such as maybe and perhaps, the initial position is preferred ^[4].

Evidential adverbs (reportedly, allegedly, visibly), indicating the source of the information coming from the statement, can also indirectly express the degree of its reliability and in this they are close to modal adverbs. The positioning of such adverbs depends on the scope of their action, and in this they are similar to adverbs indicating a point of view. If evidential adverbs relate to the entire content of the utterance, they are used at the beginning or in the middle of the sentence; if they relate only to part of the sentence, they are placed before the modified word (cf. He was reportedly going to emigrate, Purportedly, the evidence is new and the purportedly new evidence) ^[11]. In some cases, evidential adverbs can also take the final position: I'm going to be promoted, apparently ^[12].

The initial position is typical for adverbs acting as connecting words (however, nevertheless, then, besides, anyway), however, the medial position can make the message style more formal (cf. Then I went home and I then went home ^{[4, p. 22]}.

Interestingly, a change in the position of an adverb can also indicate a change in its meaning (cf. They behaved dreadfully, where the adverb of the mode of action with the meaning "in a dreadful manner" is used, and I'm dreadfully sorry, where the adverb of degree with the meaning "extremely" is used ^{[3, pp. 583-584]}). Adverbs such as hopefully, naturally, clearly, curiously, frankly, etc. are regularly used both as sentential adverbs to express the point of view of the addressee of the message regarding the content of the utterance as a whole, and as adverbs of the mode of action ^{[2; 7]}.

In some cases, the change in the position of an adverb is due to the presence of negation in the sentence. Thus, adverbs are placed before the not particle if they are used to enhance negation: I certainly do not agree ^{[4, p. 26]}. Adverbs can be either before or after the first auxiliary verb with negation, if the verb is used without abbreviations, in full form: I probably will not be there or I will probably not be there. In the case of an abbreviated form, only one option is possible (I probably won't be there). Placing an adverb immediately after the subject allows it to be excluded from the part of the sentence that is being negated, and creates a prosodic focus on the subsequent predicate element ^[7]. Therefore, with some adverbs, both positions are possible, but with a change in meaning (cf. the sentences She hadn't really delighted her audience and She really hadn't delighted her audience, where in the second case the lack of success among the audience is emphasized) ^{[7, p. 494]}.

Interestingly, in American English, adverbs that traditionally occupy a medial position can also be used before an auxiliary verb or a copula verb; at the same time, the adverb does not undergo emphatic isolation: He probably has arrived by now ^{[4, p. 26]}.

Thus, a change in the place of an adverb in a sentence can be caused by the following factors:

1) Semantic shift;

2) The presence or absence of emphasis on a certain part of the sentence;

3) The presence or absence of negation in the sentence (factors (2) and (3) may be interrelated);

4) Stylistic characteristics of the message, belonging to a certain register;

5) Regional peculiarities.

Table 1 shows the main patterns of choosing the place of an adverb in an English sentence in accordance with semantic characteristics. The following symbols are used in the table: "+" – an adverb can occupy this position in a sentence; "-" – an adverb cannot occupy this position; "+/-" – an adverb can occupy this position, but only if additional conditions are met; "*" – only individual adverbs of this semantic class can to take this position in the sentence.

Table 1.

The main semantic and syntactic characteristics of English adverbs

As can be seen from Table 1, modal, evidential, pragmatic, evaluative adverbs, connecting adverbs, emphatic adverbs, mode of action adverbs, temporal adverbs indicating an indefinite time interval are characterized by a rather high variability in terms of syntactic positioning. It is also noticeable that in some cases adverbs traditionally attributed to the same semantic class may occupy different positions in a sentence. This indicates the need to study the semantic and syntactic features of not only the classes of adverbs, but also the individual lexemes included in them.

Semantic and syntactic characteristics of the adverb fairly: corpus data analysis

As an example of how the above-mentioned trends in the use of adverbs in a sentence work, let's consider the features of using the adverb fairly in terms of its syntactic position and semantic characteristics. In this study, we rely on data obtained from the British National English Language Corpus (BNC) ^[1]. After eliminating technical errors, for example, sentences with Fairly as a proper name, and duplicate concordances, 6,498 cases of using fairly in the corpus were analyzed.

The choice of the adverb fairly for analysis is due not only to its polyfunctionality, but also to the possibility of using it in those meanings that allow different syntactic positions. Referring to the Cambridge Dictionary of the English Language (Cambridge Dictionary) ^[13], the Oxford Dictionary for Advanced Learners (the Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary) ^[14], as well as the English Dictionary for Advanced Learners published by Collins (Collins COBUILD Advanced Learner's Dictionary) ^[15] allows us to draw conclusions about the ability to assign the adverb fairly to different semantic classes with corresponding functional characteristics. According to the available dictionary definitions, fairly can be defined as an adverb of degree, an emphatic adverb, an adverb of action, an evaluative (sentential) and a pragmatic adverb. The frequency of using fairly in each of these values is shown in Table 2; let's look at the possible options in more detail.

Table 2.

The frequency of using fairly in different values

In the first place in frequency (93.44%) was the use of fairly as an intensifying adverb with the meaning "quite, rather, more than average, but less than very" ^[13], etc. In this sense, the adverb occupies a position before the modified word, as a rule, an adjective (1) or another adverb (2):

(1) Beyond the garden was a fairly busy road ... ^[1]

(2) We all sat fairly comfortably and ate the things I'd bought for the occasion ^[1].

Before the verb, in the medial position, fairly in the meaning of the adverb of degree is used only in isolated cases: So until we have fairly set out upon that road, how can we really hope to understand ... ^[1]

As part of the stable expression fairly and squarely (in the meaning of "completely"), this adverb can occupy the final position, or be between the verb and the nominal group following it in the function of a prepositional complement or circumstance of place:

...and they beat us twice fairly and squarely.' ^[1]

…if you believe the responsibility lies fairly and squarely with parents and commercial interests … ^[1]

… in its attempts to place services fairly and squarely in the community it acknowledged that it was essential … ^[1]

Fairly in the function of the emphatic adverb is represented much less frequently (0.58%) and was used before a word or phrase in a figurative meaning (in "figurative expressions", according to the Cambridge Dictionary ^[13]), for example, in cases of metaphorical (1) or metonymic transfer (2) or in the case of hyperbolization (3). As the criterion for distinguishing the intensifying and emphatic meaning of an adverb, following R. Kwerk et al. ^[7], used the presence or absence of gradation of the feature. As can be seen from the examples, in this sense, fairly is actively used before the predicate verb, in the so-called medial "auxiliary" position; as a derivative variant, it is possible to use this adverb in secondary predicative constructions.

(1) Stewart and Jones fairly crackle with life.^[1]

(2) For a moment she was speechless, then she fairly spat out:' Bugger! Th'two-faced, wall-eyed, shifty bugger!... ^[1]

(3) …a serenity of spirit and a proud, obstinate beauty which even now made him fairly ache with fatherly love. ^[1]

Relatively rarely (5.85%) there are cases of using fairly in the meanings characteristic of the adverb of the mode of action and the evaluative adverb: "in a way that is right and reasonable and treats people equally" ^[13], "in a fair and reasonable way; honestly" ^[14]. The syntactic positioning of fairly in these meanings is more diverse than fairly as an intensifying and emphatic adverb, and deserves separate consideration. The frequency of possible positioning options is shown in Table 3.

Table 3

Syntactic positioning fairly in the meaning of "in a fair and reasonable way; honestly"

Most often (50.53% of cases of using fairly in this meaning), the final position occurs: after the predicate verb and after the complement related to it (if any):

Only 37 per cent agreed that employers handled applications efficiently and fairly ... ^[1]

We just weren't treated fairly ^[1].

41.58% of cases of using fairly in the meaning of "in a fair and reasonable way; honestly" are characterized by a medial position:

... exporters fairly complained that this made their goods less competitive in price ... ^[1]

... services are fairly shared among the population who need them ^[1].

They are not being fairly treated by the Department ^[1].

There was also an intermediate variant in the corpus: between the verb and the complement related to it (3.95% of cases). Perhaps such use of the adverb is due to the presence of complicating elements in the sentence: for example, the use of a definition expressed by a prepositional nominal group, or the presence of a chain of homogeneous additions. Placing an adverb to the right of the verb reduces the distance between the predicate and the adverbial component, preserving the semantic connection between them and facilitating understanding of the utterance.

If passed by the House, the Bill will reform fairly and effectively the forgotten area of the health benefits system ^[1].

LEA representatives on school governing bodies will reflect fairly the political balance of the authority ^[1].

...in a way which deals fairly with employees, their families and with community and commercial interests ^[1].

It is also interesting that when using the passive voice form, the frequency of the medial position increased markedly (cf. the ratio between the medial and final positions for active and passive constructions, respectively, in Graphs 1 and 2).

Graph 1. The ratio of the medial and final positions fairly in the meaning of "in a fair and reasonable way; honestly" for proposals in a valid pledge.

Graph 2. The ratio of the medial and final positions fairly in the meaning of "in a fair and reasonable way; honestly" for sentences in the passive voice.

As for the ratio of different shades of the meaning of fair, it is not always possible to draw a clear line between them within the framework of accepted dictionary definitions: after all, one or another action can be fair both from the point of view of the law and from the point of view of generally accepted moral norms. However, when considering the semantics of verbs modified by this adverb, the following pattern was revealed.

In some cases, the adverb fairly indicated the objectivity and correctness of the assessment of the situation described in the statement, and was combined with verbs denoting mental processes and speech activity, controlling actants with propositive content (claim, complain, consider, interpret, presume, say, etc.). With such use, the adverb fairly usually occupied a medial position. At the same time, fairly, as a rule, expresses the opinion of the addressee of the message and can be used as an evaluative adverb, and in some cases acquires a modal connotation, since it indicates the degree of validity of a particular judgment.

It could fairly be said that Mrs Thatcher won the economic argument ^[1].

The hon. Gentleman fairly pointed out that there is a larger range of business opportunities available... ^[1].

The adverb fairly can also be used to describe the actions of the participants in the situation displayed in the statement, in terms of their legality or compliance with the norms of behavior established in society. At the same time, the adverb is fairly combined with action verbs that control the actors of a specific semantics (act, buy, distribute, rule, reward, treat, etc.). For such cases, the final position is more typical.

In all aspects of our personal lending business, we shall act fairly and responsibly ^[1].

It is then up to the employer to prove you were fired fairly^[1].

The relationship between the models of using fairly in combination with verbs of different semantics is shown in Graph 3. The diagram shows that the final position of the adverb fairly prevails when evaluating the actions of participants in the described situation, in combination with action verbs; the medial position is also acceptable in such cases. At the same time, the medial position is preferable when the adverb fairly is focused on evaluating the propositive content of an utterance and is combined with verbs of speech and verbs denoting mental activity.

Graph 3. The relationship between the position of fairly and the semantic type of the modified verb.

In some cases, the adverb fairly is subjected to isolation, being used as a sentential adverb with a pronounced evaluative component of meaning.

…as one of his advisers says, fairly, that will be clear one day ^[1].

I actually do feel quite drained, fairly^[1].

In most cases, quite fairly, the interviewer will give you feedback on the test ^[1].

As can be seen from the above examples, when isolated, the adverb fairly can express the speaker's assessment of his interlocutor's speech (or his own statement) for objectivity and correctness. Also, this adverb is able to express an external assessment of the event described in the sentence. In the first case, fairly can be attributed to the so-called pragmatic adverbs (“speech act-related” adverbs), focused on the speaker/listener, as it characterizes the participants of communication. In the second case, fairly is closer to evaluative adverbs (“evaluation” adverbs) characterizing the content of the utterance as a whole ^{[3, pp. 576-578; 10]}. However, at the same time, due to the semantics of this adverb, both its verbal orientation is acceptable (that is, the action itself described in the sentence is characterized as fair and correct) and orientation to the subject (that is, the subject is fair).

Thus, the features of the positioning of the adverb fairly in the sentence indicate the possibility of using it as an intensifying, emphatic adverb and an adverb of the mode of action. In some cases, it is also possible to refer fairly to the class of sentential adverbs of an evaluative or pragmatic type. The results of the analysis indicate the need for further study of the syntactic characteristics of adverbs and clarification of existing dictionary definitions.

Conclusion

An analysis of the features of the functioning of the adverb fairly in a sentence allows us to draw the following conclusions.

The use of fairly in the meaning of an intensifying adverb turned out to be the most frequent and the most stable from the point of view of the syntactic position. In such cases, fairly is used before the modified word or phrase, if it is an adjective or adverb, and in the medial position, if the verb or verb group is being modified. The exception is the combination fairly and squarely, which tends towards the end of the sentence.

In second place in frequency was the use of fairly in the function of the adverb of the mode of action, the same variant is characterized by the greatest variety in terms of syntactic design. The main factors influencing the choice of the place of the adverb are the shades of the meaning of the adverb, as well as the form of the pledge. When using fairly to assess the situation from the speaker's point of view, as well as when passivating a sentence, the percentage of cases with a medial position increases.

Relatively less often, fairly is used as an emphatic adverb, modifying expressions in figurative meanings and at the same time being in a medial position.

In some cases, fairly can act as an introductory word, expressing an assessment of the content of the statement or characterizing the communicants.

In general, the following pattern can be traced: the final position is characteristic of using fairly in the meaning of the adverb of the mode of action, when the verb predicate is modified and the adverb is focused on the action described in the sentence. When expressing the speaker's point of view on the degree of objectivity of the statement, fairly tends to the medial position.

Thus, the analysis indicates a close relationship between the semantic shifts to which an adverb is subjected and the syntactic position it may occupy. At the same time, it should be emphasized the need to study other factors affecting the positioning of adverbs, with the expansion of the empirical database.