Clothing as a sociocultural phenomenon (based on materials from modern China)

Chzhan Myao ORCID: 0009-0004-2065-8165 Postgraduate student, Department of Theory and History of Culture of Arts and Design, Transbaikal State University 672039, Russia, Zabaikalsky Krai, Chita, Alexandro-Zavodskaya str., 30 miaomiao426@163.com

Introduction

In Chinese feudal society, there were well-established norms in clothing that contributed to the development of refined and beautiful forms of traditional national costume, but severely limited freedom of expression in clothing. The choice of shape, material, color and patterns of clothing was determined by class origin and gender, and clothing served as an indicator of social status.

The reforms of the Republic of China period (1912-1949) destroyed established norms and opened the way to equality and freedom of expression through clothing. However, the ideas of freedom in clothing were accepted only in the progressive strata of society, and the majority of the population still had traditional ideas about the class structure of clothing, and freedom of clothing was considered immoral.

During the "cultural revolution" (1966-1976), freedom in clothing was prohibited, clothing and hats were strictly controlled in accordance with the state ideology. Influenced by the political ideas of the time, people enthusiastically accepted the idea of "one for all, thousands for one" in clothing as a symbol of the destruction of old ideas about the class conditionality of clothing. Now, with the abolition of class distinctions, everyone had to dress the same, which was supposed to demonstrate equality. In fact, these monotonous, gender-neutral clothes reflected old ideas about clothes, and even surpassed them. After all, although the established norms governing the style of clothing in feudal society limited individuality, there was still room for aesthetics, while the "management of clothing" during the cultural revolution completely destroyed freedom and individuality in clothing.

After the beginning of the policy of reform and openness in China (1978), the development of Chinese clothing broke free from the shackles of the "cultural revolution" and took a direction towards freedom, individuality and aesthetics. The shapes, colors and materials of clothing became diverse, and Western forms of clothing began to appear in everyday fashion.

Changes in clothing after the start of China's policy of reform and openness

In 1978, the XI Plenum of the CPC was held, where a new policy of reform and openness was adopted, shifting the emphasis of the party and the state to the socialist construction of modernity. During this period, Chinese clothing made remarkable progress: materials, quality, technological processes and design began to gradually modernize, styles and color solutions became diverse, and fashion cycles accelerated.

Men's fashion has moved away from the monotony of military uniforms, and there is a fairly large selection of clothing for men: suits, jackets, coats, raincoats, hunting suits, vests, jeans, shirts, knitwear, etc. Models range from a traditional straight cut to more individualized curved shapes. The traditional black, gray and blue tones have been overcome in the color scheme, neutral shades such as beige, silver, light yellow are boldly used, and elements of women's clothing are also added.

Women's clothing offers an even greater variety of shapes: dresses, suits, coats, raincoats, fur products, suits, jeans, shirts, knitwear, evening dresses, underwear, etc., each of which lends itself to fashion trends. Only in the category of dresses, different types can be distinguished: straight, curvy, with a sun skirt, mini, supermini, fishtail cut, with a bat sleeve, bell dresses, pleated, high-waisted, Chinese qipao dresses, trousers skirts, knitted, denim, etc. ^{[1, p. 120]}.

The varieties of fabrics and colors of clothing are significantly enriched. Before the start of the reforms, due to the difficult economic situation in the country, the variety of fabrics for clothing was small, mainly different types of cotton and wool fabrics were used. Synthetic materials such as nylon and polyester were popular because of their durability and practicality. After the start of the reforms, along with the progress of textile technologies, the variety of fabrics for clothing has become more and more. Along with natural fabrics (leather, wool, silk, etc.), synthetic materials (nylon, acrylic, polyester, polyamide, nitron, artificial silk, etc.) began to be widely used. Clothing colors were no longer limited to the traditional "three colors" in gray tones. According to the Chinese Association of Fashionable Colors, in recent years, the colors of the beach, the sea wave, sunset, steppe, Antarctica, pink of the Tang era, bright yellow, grassy green, pure black, etc. have become popular ^{[1, p. 121]}.

As the variety of clothes increases, so does the variety of accessories. Each type of accessory has its own characteristics due to differences in materials, shape, functions and style. In particular, the bags are presented in such variants as backpacks, shoulder bags, clutch bags, waist bags, luggage bags and cosmetic bags. Jewelry also has a variety of styles: jewelry made of precious stones with elegant luster, wood products with natural simplicity, fashionable jewelry in a playful style and authentic products of traditional shapes.

After the beginning of the reforms, many fashionable styles appeared, and sometimes it is difficult to say which style became the symbol of this era. In the early 80s of the twentieth century, flared jeans were popular, which sat tightly on the hips and gradually expanded below the knee, giving the pants the shape of a bell. For fashionable youth, it was believed that the wider the trousers, the more advanced they were, and the width of the leg of jeans could reach half a meter, which was ironically called "the janitor on duty in the stairwell" ^{[2, p. 21]}. In the mid-80s, flared jeans were replaced by straight trousers, skinny trousers and capris. In the late 80s, fitness pants became popular. These elastic knitted trousers with stretchy properties, very comfortable and practical, were chosen by women of all ages. Fitness trousers became an absolute hit of that time, although they were far from ideal in aesthetic terms, especially for women with an imperfect figure. Then jeans took the leading positions in the world of trousers again, their wide distribution and durability made them a fashion classic.

In the 90s of the twentieth century, fashion for clothes ceased to be limited to one style, it began to manifest itself in a variety of fashion trends. In the early 90s, the natural style, soft, restrained, became popular. The comfortable outfit was replaced by an extravagant, noisy, boastful outfit, as if people were already bored with urban sophistication and they were striving to return to the simplicity of village life. Then punk fashion came, and seriousness and elegance were forgotten. The "Homeless Style" (Homeless Style or grunge) became fashionable: ripped jeans and skirts, stretched T-shirts, artificially aged knitted sweaters and leather things, faded, faded fabrics that expressed rebellion and individuality.

In the mid-90s, minimalism became popular, rigor and conciseness replaced carelessness, simplicity and smooth lines were recognized. Pantsuits, knitted sweaters, pencil skirts, round-toed shoes have become street trends. Then came the fashion for transparent outfits, putting underwear on top of outerwear, bags with thin straps, a bare stomach became new favorites of a modern woman, whether this is a revolution in moral norms or a return to demonstrating sexuality is unknown.

At the turn of the century, the revival of ethnic style began in China. Embroidery, fringe, beads, lace, bright colors became fashionable, and festive folklore clothing became one of the notable accents of the time. Moving into the new century, minimalism, which had been dominant for a long time, began to fade into the background, and luxury and decorative ethnics came instead, opening up the fashion of the new century.

During the period of reform and openness, Western influence was the main trend and characteristic feature of the development of Chinese clothing. Back in the early 20th century, the development of Chinese clothing showed certain signs of Western fashion, but neither in breadth, depth, nor activity was it comparable to what happened this time. In May 1983, the Xinhua news agency published an article entitled "Liberation of the style of clothing", which answers the question of how it should be liberated: "Clothes should be a little liberated, it is worth encouraging men to wear suits and double–breasted jackets, and women - Chinese dresses and skirts-suits, clothing style he should be generous, with a national flavor and conform to the habits of the Chinese" ^{[3, p. 150]}. In 1987, General Secretary of the CPC Central Committee Hu Yaobang and five members of the Politburo of the CPC Central Committee appeared at a press conference in Western-style suits and shoes. This step symbolized the re-convergence of Chinese and Western cultures in a new era and contributes to the popularization of Western clothing in China. The wave of popularity of costumes is rapidly gaining momentum in China, and at some point it became fashionable to wear costumes regardless of profession or social status. One study showed that in the mid-80s, 76.3% of young people preferred suits as their first choice clothes ^{[4, p. 60]}.

In the process of Western modernization, Chinese clothing has received many advantages, but a number of problems have also been identified. The process of introducing Western clothing was practically carried out by neglecting traditional Chinese clothing. Borrowing the culture of Western clothing initially suggested the development of Chinese national clothing, but as a result, Chinese clothing lost its popularity. In the modern world, many peoples who have preserved their traditions have retained certain features of their traditional clothing in the process of Western modernization, while Chinese clothing, after the beginning of reforms and openness, faced the threat of complete Westernization. Moreover, in the process of introducing Western clothing, the relevant standards and meaning of clothing were often ignored. Some people who wore suits did not know the etiquette of clothing, for example, heavy and large items were put in the inner pockets of the suit, which violated the appearance of the suit ^{[5, p. 145]}.

In the context of reforms and openness, the modernization process in China inevitably flows into the waves of "globalization". The development of Chinese clothing, like a thin stream, eventually flows into a huge river of world clothing. In the process of globalization, clothing is no longer limited to traditional family workshops and small agricultural production models. It goes beyond the borders of the country, crosses regions, unites various cities, forming a huge and organized network of design, production and sales. Clothing that is considered fashionable on the market can be sewn from materials produced in the USA, modeled by designers from France, made in China, and eventually a person can wear it anywhere in the world ^{[6, p. 276]}. The Chinese fashion industry occupies an important position in the global clothing production system. By the 90s, China had already become the world's largest country in the production and export of textiles and clothing. According to statistics for 1994, the volume of clothing production amounted to 7 billion pieces, and the share of clothing exports amounted to 16.7% of the global volume.

When integrating into the global economy, the Chinese fashion industry has always maintained an active and proactive position ^[7]. At the same time, globalization has a negative impact on Chinese traditional fashion. Some traditional forms of clothing, due to their philosophy and content, can become fashionable elements and enter international fashion trends. At the same time, some traditional methods of clothing production, especially folk crafts, inevitably face the threat of extinction. Yang Zhengwen, researching the process of making traditional clothing of the Miao ethnic group, found that the traditional production of dyes from the indigo plant (indigofera tinctoria) has already lost its relevance, and the ancient method of embroidery with two needles is facing the threat of extinction. In addition, there are fewer and fewer people wearing miao clothing, which leads to the loss of the market for traditional miao clothing, and people who own traditional production methods are passing away ^{[8, p. 132]}.

Not only in the region where the Miao ethnic group lives, but also in many other places, handmade crafts in the field of clothing face the same fate. In comparison, Japan has done a lot to transfer traditional crafts. At the beginning of the twentieth century, Japan began the "One Village, One Commodity" movement aimed at preserving crafts, encouraging its citizens to preserve and study traditional hand crafts.

Globalization poses a threat to Chinese traditional fashion, giving it a peripheral position. However, it is interesting that globalization can also contribute to the revival of traditional fashion and the awakening of people's consciousness about the culture of national clothing. The international tourism industry, being a powerful engine of globalization, contributes to the development of national costumes as a tourist resource. The recognition of cultural artifacts by foreign tourists, in turn, contributes to the rethinking of traditional clothing culture by the local population. They are proud of this, re-recognize their traditions and sometimes start wearing traditional clothes again, which were once considered outdated.

Globalization is a historical process in which the structure of the world center and periphery is changing. Western culture, located in the center, and Eastern culture, located on the periphery, interact, causing mutual understanding. Many Western designers draw inspiration from Chinese traditional clothing, and the "Chinese style" is also present in international fashion design. Chinese fashion culture is also aware of itself in the process of globalization, and the popularity of traditional Chinese costumes and Chinese dresses in the new century is a great signal. This may be just a temporary fashion, but it allows Chinese people to feel the appeal of Chinese clothing and hope for its revival.

Factors of changes in clothing after the start of the reform and openness policy

Clothes are a mirror of time, a barometer of society: it reflects social mores and their changes most clearly and quickly. The direction of changes in clothing can be open and free, or it can be closed and conservative. Changes in clothing follow both the patterns of its own development and the influences of the external social environment.

The influence of politics on clothing has been around for a long time, and changes in the political environment also lead to changes in clothing, but different types of changes can lead to different directions in the evolution of clothing. The "cultural Revolution" and the policy of reform and openness are two major political changes since the founding of the People's Republic of China in 1949, but they had a completely different impact on the development of fashion. The "Cultural Revolution" has brought political control over clothing to a new level. During the period of the Republic of China (1912-1949) and at the beginning of the formation of New China (after 1949), changes in clothing were quite moderate. During the Republic period, there were no clear norms of clothing for ordinary people, so the old styles of long robes, Sun Yat-sen (and Mao) jackets and jackets with skirts continued to exist at the beginning of the New China. The so–called "imperial, official and noble" clothes were only on the periphery and were not completely eradicated, but the "cultural revolution" shifted to the extreme left and severely condemned the "four remnants" - old ideas, culture (including clothing, art, architecture), customs and habits.

By the end of the 60s, China's economy began to recover, and Chinese fashion might have embarked on a path of prosperity, but the impact of the "cultural revolution" interrupted this trend and led to a retreat in fashion development, suppressing and prohibiting aesthetics and beauty in clothing. And it was only with the beginning of the policy of reform and openness in fashion that the movement forward began. They not only freed the political shackles imposed on clothing during the "cultural revolution", giving fashion a freer political environment, but also provided effective leadership for the development of fashion, advocating diversity, openness and individualization in fashion trends. Thus, Chinese fashion has entered an era of active development aimed at diversity, individualization and aestheticization, when "all the peoples of the country have turned into a multitude of flowers," and flowers compete in beauty.

The opinion of the country's leaders plays an important role in the process of changing fashion. At the beginning of the twentieth century, Sun Yat-sen ordered the creation of a men's jacket-French (shunshanzhuang, zhongshanzhuang, "Sunyatsen suit" according to one of the variants of his surname, or "sunyatsenovka" in Russian translation) and was the first to wear it, which significantly contributed to its popularization and dissemination (Figure 1).

Figure 1. Young people in a "Sunyatsen suit" and in a European suit

After the founding of the People's Republic of China, Mao Zedong, Zhou Enlai and other statesmen wore clothes of this cut, which not only established his status as the main clothing model within the country, but also created a new image of Chinese clothing in the international arena. At the APEC summit in 2014, Jiang Zemin was photographed with leaders of other countries in a Chinese-style suit and this undoubtedly gave a new impetus to the revival of traditional Chinese clothing (Figure 2). The press reported that "the silk frock coats worn by the leaders of the countries were a cross between a Hanfu suit, a Sunyatsen jacket and Tang dynasty clothes" (APEC leaders took a photo in suits with elements of Chinese clothing // URL: https://ria.ru/20141110/1032584677.html ).

Figure 2. The leaders of the APEC countries were photographed in national Chinese shirts. Photo by Mikhail Klimentyev/ TASS // https://tass.ru/mezhdunarodnaya-panorama/1562294

Of course, not always and not in all cases, the clothing of leaders determines the direction of fashion, but in some cases, the conscious choice of leaders in clothing has a special guiding effect.

Clothing, as a material product, is also subject to economic factors: the level of development of the productive forces of society and the level of economic development in the choice of materials, design and production technology. In the twentieth century, China's economy overcame the path from the transition level between agriculture and the industrial era to the information age, which contributed to progress in materials and technology of clothing production. In the first half and the middle of the twentieth century, the main materials for Chinese clothing were natural fabrics such as cotton, linen, wool, and silk. After the start of the reform and openness policy, chemical fibers began to be widely used, which, compared with pure wool or cotton fibers, were more durable, elastic and durable. Innovations in fabrics and the development of technology have contributed to the development of fashion. During the industrial era, the advent of textile machinery shifted the production of clothing from handmade to mechanized activities. This has increased labor productivity and expanded the scale of clothing production, providing consumers with an increasingly diverse range of clothing models. The advent of the information age gave an additional impetus to the development of fashion, measurements for tailoring began to be based on optoelectronic devices, design and manufacture - on computers and various modern equipment, and the exchange of information about fashion is carried out via the Internet. The innovation and development of Chinese fashion are increasingly dependent on high technology.

Economic development contributes to changing the functions of clothing from practical to aesthetic. After the beginning of the policy of reform and openness in China, the development of the economy contributed to the prosperity of fashion, the level of clothing consumption by people increased significantly, and on the basis of practicality, people began to strive for aesthetics and individuality in clothing, fashion became diverse, various styles and trends appeared in it.

Social factors also influence the development of clothing. Clothing is a reflection of social trends that are often associated with certain social ideas in a certain period of time. Since the beginning of the policy of reform and openness, feminist ideas have had a profound impact on clothing in Chinese society. Feminism stands for women's liberation, gender equality and against old-fashioned restrictions imposed by customs. The wearing of men's clothing by women has become a manifestation of women's struggle for gender equality ^{[9, p. 49]}. Feminist thought has had a profound and long-term impact on women's clothing in China since the early twentieth century. Fashion designers are sensitive to social trends and infuse them into the design concept, thereby contributing to changes in fashion.

In the 1990s, the popularity of casual clothing was associated with the social trend of returning to nature. After losing interest in wealth and luxury, the fast pace of life and stress make people strive to return to nature. Changing formal clothes to light casual and free for nature walks is becoming a new lifestyle. During this period, fashionable colors: cosmic, forest, marine, celestial, beach, sunset and other natural shades also emphasize the theme of returning to nature. The restoration of nostalgic and retro trends at the end of the twentieth century led to the return of hippie culture and punk style, as well as to the popularization of national clothes. Traditional Chinese outfits, embroidery, fringe and lace are becoming fashionable elements. The interaction between fashion style and social trends determines the evolution of clothing. New social trends stimulate the emergence of new fashion trends, and new fashion trends, in turn, spread and shape social trends.

Aesthetic factors play an important role. When talking about the origin of clothing, the first associations are practicality and protection from adverse environmental influences. With the development of production and the progress of material civilization, the function of decoration and decoration appeared. There is also a theory about the origin of clothing as a decorative element, according to which the origin of clothing is associated with the instinctive desire of a person to decorate himself. Anthropological studies show that there are tribes in the world who do not wear clothes, but there are no people who do not decorate themselves ^{[10, p. 17]}. With the development of civilization, aesthetics is increasingly becoming an integral attribute of clothing. Aesthetic aspirations in human attire reflect the need of the human soul for beauty, express the inner need of a person to evaluate and perceive an image and character from the point of view of beauty ^{[11, p. 80]}.

During the "cultural revolution", the desire for beauty was suppressed, but in the era of reform and openness, aesthetic factors became significant in the world of clothing. Since the 1980s, when people were hunting for fashion, and until the 1990s, when individuality was manifested in clothing, beauty standards were constantly changing, and the level of aesthetic perception was constantly increasing. Initially, people may have just been paying attention to fashionable styles. During the period of popularity of men's suits in the 1980s, you could see suits almost everywhere, and many of them were wrinkled or even worn. Later, the list of criteria included the quality of clothing, brand, style, situation, individual traits, fashion and much more. When women, striving for beauty, began to dress up from head to toe, some men also broke out of the rigid framework of gender culture. They began to grow their hair, wear earrings, do makeup and skin care, and wear bright clothes, moving from rigidity to neutrality and softness, which is certainly an aesthetic revolution for men. Aesthetic freedom has always been an important symbol of fashion's independent prosperity. After the start of the policy of reform and openness, Chinese residents became free in the aesthetic perception of clothing.

Conclusion

The history of the development of clothing is the history of the development of human civilization. From ancient skins to the spacesuits of modern astronauts, clothing testifies to the historical development of mankind and is a symbol of human civilization. Since the beginning of the policy of reform and openness, China has faced enormous historical changes caused by the process of globalization and deepening reforms, which constantly exposes Chinese culture to the influence of modernity and cultural exchange. This inevitably changes the mentality of the people and the structure of their clothes.

This article examines in detail the changes in Chinese clothing after the start of the policy of reform and openness, as well as the reasons for these changes. This confirms that any cultural changes are the result of the interaction of three factors: the "old" traditional, the "new" real and the "alien" external, and only mutual influence and a combination of these factors can lead to the formation of modern culture ^[12]. Modern changes in Chinese clothing culture are not limited to simply borrowing Western trends, but are accompanied by the emergence of postmodern ideas, which leads to an increase in cultural awareness and the revivalization of traditional and local culture.