Translate this page:
Please select your language to translate the article


You can just close the window to don't translate
Library
Your profile

Back to contents

Psychology and Psychotechnics
Reference:

Features of oculomotor activity (eye movement) in patients with schizophrenia in recognizing essential signs using the example of the "Exclusion of the 4th superfluous" technique

Isaeva Elena Rudol'fovna

ORCID: 0000-0002-7731-7693

Doctor of Psychology

Professor, Head of the Department of General and Clinical Psychology, FSBEI HE I.P. Pavlov SPbSMU MOH Russia

197022, Russia, Saint Petersburg, L.Tolstogo str., 6-8

isajeva@yandex.ru
Mukhitova Yuliana Vladimirovna

ORCID: 0000-0003-4172-6257

PhD in Psychology

Associate Professor, Department of General and Clinical Psychology, First St. Petersburg State Medical University named after Academician I.P. Pavlov

197022, Russia, Saint Petersburg, 6/8 Lva Tolstogo str.

che88@mail.ru
Dmitriev Pavel Ivanovich

ORCID: 0009-0000-1691-2838

PhD in Technical Science

Head of Department of video Analytics of LLC "NPP Videomix",

197342, Russia, Saint Petersburg, trans. Krasnogvardeisky, 15 liter p, office of NPP Videomix LLC

dmitriev@prointech.ru

DOI:

10.7256/2454-0722.2024.1.69668

EDN:

OEEUUF

Received:

25-01-2024


Published:

27-03-2024


Abstract: The research is devoted to the study of the specifics of oculomotor activity of patients with schizophrenia when solving the cognitive task of searching for common (similar) signs in 4 stimulus images and, on this basis, the exclusion of 1 superfluous object on the cards of the "Exclusion of the 4th superfluous" technique. Oculomotor activity is a reliable biomarker of both conscious and unconscious cognitive processes, and eye movement patterns serve as a quantitative (objective) characteristic of the process of perception, attention and thinking in real time. When solving cognitive tasks, the subject of study was the mental processes of patients with schizophrenia: comparison, classification, generalization, abstraction, which were revealed in the responses of patients in the "Exclusion of the fourth superfluous" technique. The respondents' answers were analyzed depending on the level of generalization: by categorical and functional criteria, by specific situational criteria, and latent criteria. To assess the characteristics of oculomotor activity, the AI tracker method was used using a hardware and software complex for contactless registration of human oculomotor activity. To assess the characteristics of mental activity, the “Exclusion of the fourth superfluous" technique was used. Patients with schizophrenia demonstrate difficulties in the recognition process, there is an emphasis on individual parts of the image, as well as: chaotic movements of the gaze between objects and their details. This indicates the need for a longer time period for image recognition, as well as difficulties in analyzing and identifying common essential features of objects (images), as a result of which schizophrenia patients carry out mental generalization operations based on a variety of, more often insignificant and latent signs, which is reflected in making the "wrong" decision. The study of eye movement during the solution of such mental tasks has shown that the characteristics of the gaze during the search for common features reflect the mental acts of comparison and generalization of essential features and can provide objective information about the difficulties and violations of the produced. As a result of the study, it was concluded that the features of oculomotor activity in patients with schizophrenia are closely related to disorders of cognitive processing of visual information at early levels of the thought process. Eye movements in solving cognitive tasks accompany the mental process of searching and selecting significant features from the general background of diverse visual information and reflect the difficulties of its selection.


Keywords:

schizophrenia, mind, the eytracker, visual perception, oculomotor activity, cognitive functions, visual fixations, the selectivity of perception, selectivity of thinking, latent signs

This article is automatically translated.

Relevance

In the history of the study of schizophrenia, a special place has always been occupied by research in the cognitive sphere (Polyakov Yu.F., 1972; Kabanov M.M., 1985; Zotov M.V., 1998; Gurovich I.Ya., Shmukler A.B., Magomedova, 2001; Zeigarnik B.V., 2005; M. M. Kutz, I. C. Selter, I. K. Ferrnand et al, 2005; Abramov, V.A., Putyatin, G.G., Abramov, A.V., 2008; Ivanov M.V., Neznanov N.G., 2008; Bleicher V.M., Kruk I.V., Bokov S.N., 2009; Litvintsev S.V., Ershov B.B., Kolchev A.I., Kolchev S.A., 2010; Sarkisyan G.R., Gurovich I.Ya, Kif R.S., 2010; Cherednikova T.V., 2009; Cherednikova T.V., 2011; Gorkova I.A., 2011; Kritskaya, V. P., Meleshko T.K., 2015, etc.; Isaeva E.R., Lebedeva G.G., 2016; Plotnikov V. V., Plotnikov D. V., 2018, etc.; Mukhitova Yu.V., Isaeva E.R., Tregubenko I.A., Shoshina I.I., Hanko A.V., Limankin O.V., 2021) One of the first drew attention to the change in the sphere of perception of patients with schizophrenia V. A. Gilyarovsky (1941), who argued that that the cognitive activity of patients with schizophrenia is undergoing changes, starting from the primary links, ending with more highly organized processes.

Significant progress in understanding the mechanisms of the pathology of thinking was made thanks to B.V. Zeigarnik – she attached special importance to the pathopsychological method in the study of thinking disorders. The initial position of Soviet pathopsychologists (Kritskaya V. P., Meleshko T. K., Polyakov Yu. F., 1994; S. Ya. Rubinstein, 2004; B. V. Zeigarnik, 2005; Yu. F. Polyakov, 1973, 1978) was the understanding of the process of thinking as a reflexively conditioned activity formed in the process of ontogenesis (Bleicher V.M., 2009). Kritskaya V.P., Meleshko T.K., Polyakov Yu.F. (1994) in their works pointed to a violation of the selectivity of thinking due to a violation of the probabilistic structure of past experience and a weakening of its influence on actual mental activity.  When solving mental tasks (generalization, comparison, classification), patients with schizophrenia use both essential and latent signs with an equal degree of probability and significance. Distortion of the generalization process and violation of the selectivity of thinking, as end-to-end features of the psyche of patients with schizophrenia, are manifested in all intellectual activity (Kritskaya V.P., Meleshko T.K., Polyakov Yu.F., 2004; Kritskaya V.P., Meleshko T.K., 2015). A.I. Molochek pointed out the great importance of having an adynamic past experience and preservation knowledge itself (Bleicher V.M., 2009). Frumkin Ya.P. and Livshits S.M. (1979), in turn, also noted the participation of past experience in the formation of the clinical picture, while special importance was attached to the mechanisms of pathological revival of trace reactions. L.S. Vygotsky considered the manifestations of a decrease in the level of conceptual thinking in schizophrenia to the level of specific semantic formations, which, in his opinion, there is a change in the meanings of words (Zeigarnik B.V., 2005).

In the study of schizophrenia, research on neurocognitive, psycho- and neuro-linguistic aspects of cognitive impairment (neurocognitive deficit) is becoming increasingly relevant and important, which are considered as one of the leading components in the symptoms of schizophrenia in its diagnosis (Zotov M.V., 1999; Velligan D. I, 1999; M. F. Green, R. S. Kern, D. L. Braff, J. Mintz, 2000; Gurovich I.Ya., Shmukler A.B., Magomedova M.V., 2001; Kim C. K., Kim S. H., Choe B. M, 2004; Nuechterlein K. H., Dawson M. E., Green, M. F., 2006; S. Van Hooren, 2008; Ivanov M.V., Neznanov N.G., 2008; Isaeva, E. R., Tregubenko, I. A., Mukhitova, Yu. V., & Shoshina, I. I., 2021). Also, special attention is paid to the search for the brain mechanisms of these disorders. For example, E.R. Isaeva, Yu.V. Mukhitova et al. (2018) noted that violations of cognitive processes are detected even at the level of early processing of visual information.

The study of cognitive, including mental activity in schizophrenia requires the search and application of new approaches and diagnostic methods based on high information and medical technologies that can provide greater objectivity and reliability in research of thinking disorders. Using the eye tracker method, it becomes possible to analyze eye movement patterns in more detail in the process of solving a cognitive problem in patients with schizophrenia, which is important for understanding the structure and mechanisms of sensory-cognitive disorders in schizophrenia and for developing technologies for objective diagnosis of perceptual and thinking disorders. The AI tracker method allows you to answer questions about how a person processes visual stimuli and uses the information received to find a successful strategy for solving certain tasks. Given that the decision-making process is often hidden, unconscious, the ability to approach an understanding of this process through gaze tracking is potentially an important and promising research technology in terms of solving many theoretical and practical issues to determine the mechanisms of cognitive impairment, as well as to identify reliable diagnostic biomarkers. In this study, an attempt was made to objectify the assessment of cognitive processes based on the registration of eye movements (oculomotor activity) when solving mental tasks in patients with schizophrenia.

One of the main ways to get information about the outside world is vision. In humans, visual acuity decreases gradually from the central to the peripheral field of vision, therefore, in order to obtain accurate visual information, it is necessary to bring the image of a visual object to the zone of the clearest visual perception. Eye movements play an important role in this process: oculomotor activity ensures the receipt, transformation and further use of visual information obtained through the visual apparatus (Yarbus A. L., 1965; Drummers V. A., 1997; Ananyeva K. I., Drummers V. A., Kharitonov A. N., 2010; Drummers V. A., Zhegallo A.V., 2014).

It is noteworthy that eye movements give an idea of a person's homeostatic balance and reflect the decision-making process. Consequently, the science of vision explores the quality of the observed environment, determined under various experimental conditions. Moreover, it answers questions about how a person processes visual stimuli and uses the information received for a successful strategy to achieve certain goals (Yarbus A. L., 1965; Drummers V. A., 1997; Ananyeva K. I., Drummers V. A., Kharitonov A. N., 2010; Drummers V. A., Zhegallo A.V., 2014). Considering that approximately 95% of human decision-making occurs at the unconscious level (Zaltman, G., 2003; Pop, N., Al, Dabija, D.C., and Iorga, A.M., 2014; Nyoni, T., and Bonga, W. G., 2017), the study of cognitive processes using gaze tracking opens up the ability to approach the invisible part of neural connections, overcoming the limitations associated with the subjectivity of conducted techniques based on self-reflection and self-observation: questionnaires, tests (Connors, B. L., Rende, R., and Colton, T. J., 2016; Bell, L., Vogt, J., Willemse, C., Routledge, T., Butler, L. T., and Sakaki, M., 2018).

Theoretical models that reveal the interrelationships of patterns of gaze movement and cognitive processes seem insufficient at the moment. In addition, following the global trend of the so–called "digital strategy", technologies are needed to identify cognitive impairment in solving problems of primary and differential diagnosis, as well as to monitor the mental state and functioning of a person (Bryson G. B., 2001; Bestelmeyer P. E. G., Tatler B. W., Phillips L. H., Fraser G., Benson P. J., Clair St, 2006; Morita K., Miura K., Fujimoto M, 2017; Thakkar K. N., Diwadkar V. A., Rolfs M., 2017; Scholl, J., and Klein-Fl?gge, M., 2018; Rutkowski, T. M., Abe, M. S., Koculak, M., and Otake-Matsuura, M., 2020).

AI tracking is considered a promising approach to enhance the assessment of the reliability of the results and objectification of this process. Studies have established that oculomotor activity is a reliable biomarker of both conscious and unconscious cognitive processes. For example, the characteristics of oculomotor reactions make it possible to differentiate the reliability of the answers received (cases of lies or unreliability in the answers of the subjects are distinguished). Research using an EYE tracker experimentally confirms that eye movement patterns serve as a quantitative (objective) characteristic of the process of perception, attention and thinking in real time. For example, according to the results of their research, P. Holzman and S. Levin suggested that the already well-known deficit of smooth tracking is associated with violations of involuntary attention, expressed in the form of disinhibited saccades. There is also a high frequency of short involuntary saccades characteristic of patients with schizophrenia, which confirms existing hypotheses about excessive distractibility to secondary, insignificant signs and the inability to filter information, cutting off more or less significant stimuli in conditions of a given activity (Yarbus A.L., 1965; Vladimirov A.D., 1972; Barabanshchikov V.A., 1997; Lee K. H, Williams L. M., 2000; Sereno, A. B., Holzman, P. S., 1993; Minassian A., Granholm E., Verney S., 2005; Kim, J., Park, S., and Blake, R., 2011; Ananyeva K. I., Drummers V. A., Kharitonov A. N., 2010; Domagalik et al., 2012; Drummers V. A., Zhegallo A.V., 2014; Daglas, R., Y?cel, M., Cotton, S., Allott, K., Hetrick, S., and Berk, M., 2015; Butenko V. V., 2016).

In recent years, many studies have been conducted to describe the characteristics of oculomotor activity in patients with various neuropsychiatric disorders in comparison with the norm. For example, Shiino T., Miura K., Fujimoto M. with co-authors, we revealed significantly significant differences in five characteristics of oculomotor activity in patients with autism spectrum disorders and patients with schizophrenia, in comparison with the normative group, in the tasks of "free viewing" and viewing with a given purpose (tests of smooth gaze following) (Shiino, T., Miura, K., Fujimoto, M., Kudo, N., Yamamori, H., Yasuda, Y., et al., 2020).

The experiment of D.A.Shvayko and E.A.Budenkova showed that the oculomotor reactions of people suffering from schizophrenia are characterized by a high degree of disorganization, the presence of incorrect saccades, prolonged fixation on isolated areas of stimulus material that do not contain information of primary importance for the task, compared with oculograms of healthy people (Tkachenko A. A., Demidova L. Yu., Babicheva N.. V., 2018). Dysfunctional eye movements indicate a violation of the smooth tracking system, which is reflected in an increase in indicators of various oculomotor characteristics (saccade frequency, duration of gaze fixation, etc.) in patients with schizophrenia, in comparison with the normative group. The increased frequency of saccades during gaze following in solving a cognitive task is probably compensatory, but this interpretation remains ambiguous due to the lack of data on certain types of saccades (Butenko V. V., 2016).

It has been described that cognitive impairments detected by gaze analysis can indicate or even predict mental illness (Fujioka, T., Inohara, K., Okamoto, Y., Masuya, Y., Ishitobi, M., Saito, D. N., et al., 2016; Almubark, I., Chang, L.-C., Shattuck, K. F., Nguyen, T., Turner, R. S., and Jiang, X, 2020; Wolf, A., Ueda, K., and Hirano, Y., 2021). In addition, gaze tracking can provide valuable information about cognitive processes in both healthy adults and patients with latent forms of disorders. Preliminary results of a number of studies show that the parameters of the gaze metric, such as: fixations (their location, number and duration), saccades (their number and amplitudes) and the length of the path scan are abnormal in a variety of neurological and mental diseases (Skripka E. Yu, 2011; Beedie, S. A., St.Clair, D. M., and Benson, P. J., 2011; Beedie S. A., Benson P. J., Giegling I., 2012; T?rkan, B. N., Amado, S., Ercan, E. S., and Per?inel, I., 2016; Morita K., Miura K., Fujimoto M., 2017; Tkachenko A. A., Demidova L. Yu., Babicheva N. V., 2018; Li, J., Zhong, Y., Han, J., Ouyang, G., Li, X., and Liu, H..,2020). Since many clinical studies require diagnosis based on etiology (i.e., understanding the processes of brain functioning in individuals suffering from mental disorders), the development of reliable biomarkers is the main goal of modern clinical research (Lee K. H, Williams L. M., 2000; Kim, J., Park, S., and Blake, R., 2011; Daglas, R., Y?cel, M., Cotton, S., Allott, K., Hetrick, S., and Berk, M., 2015; Yahata, N., Kasai, K., and Kawato, M., 2017; Wolf, A., Ueda, K., and Hirano, Y., 2021).

The purpose of the study: to determine the characteristics of oculomotor activity in patients with schizophrenia and in healthy respondents when solving a cognitive task of searching and choosing a common (unifying) feature with the definition of an unsuitable (superfluous) object on this basis.

Materials and methods of research During the study, 45 patients (26 men (56%), 19 women (44%), average age 39±11 years) were examined with a diagnosis of schizophrenia, paranoid form, on the basis of St. Petersburg State Medical Institution "Psychiatric Hospital No. 1 named after P.P. Kashchenko". The diagnosis was established in accordance with the criteria of ICD-10. The patients' participation in the study was voluntary, provided that there was no intellectual defect, active psychotic or other condition that prevented the ability to assess their condition. The control group included 59 healthy subjects (15 men (25%), 44 women (75%), average age 21±3 years). To assess the characteristics of oculomotor activity, the AI tracker method was used using a hardware and software complex for contactless registration of human oculomotor activity (camera frequency 250 Hz, accuracy 0.3?, camera operating distance 60-85 cm, capture area 32-42 cm from a distance of 70 cm, camera range 850 nm (NIR). To combine the points of view in the fixation, the standard I-DT (Dispersion Threshold Identification) algorithm with a fixation threshold of 70 ms was used. To assess the level of generalization and its disorders in the thinking of patients with schizophrenia, the “Exclusion of the fourth superfluous" technique was used. The calculation of mathematical and statistical data was performed in the STATISTICA 10 program using the following statistical analysis methods: descriptive statistics, frequency analysis, comparative analysis using the Mann-Whitney criterion.

The results of the study.

Patients with schizophrenia, when solving mental tasks using the "Exclusion of the 4th superfluous" method, demonstrate a higher frequency of fixations, in comparison with the normative group, on a visual stimulus (the frequency of fixations is higher than in the norm group; p<0.001), fixations are of a longer nature (average time and maximum time of fixations, p<0.001), which may indicate a longer examination of stimuli and difficulties in making a decision when choosing an extra item in the card. Patients with schizophrenia demonstrate a smaller pupil width diameter (p<0.001), which may indicate a low level of cognitive load during the period of solving an urgent task, difficulty in concentration and concentration, and this may also be a consequence of medication therapy (Table 1).

Table 1 Comparative analysis of the characteristics of oculomotor activity in patients with schizophrenia and in the normative group when solving mental tasks in the "Exclusion of the fourth superfluous" method

Characteristics of oculomotor activity in recognition of stimuli

M± ?

The sum of the ranks

 

U

 

 

 

Z

 

 

 

p-level

 

Patients with schizophrenia (n=45)

Standard

(n=59)

 

Patients with schizophrenia (n=45)

The norm (n=59)

Number of commits

68,53± 46,9

55,73 ± 49,24

279952

681239

135749

6,658

0,001

Average fixation time

262,77±  57,51

221,72±  56,33

302979,5

648530,5

108250,5

10,728

0,001

Maximum fixation time

1026,92± 637,87

694,53±  416,1

314619,5

636890,5

96610,5

12,554

0,001

Pupil diameter

3,58±0,61

4,04±  0,83

177012,5

774497,5

119042,5

-9,035

0,001

 

A comparative analysis of the characteristics of oculomotor activity in the normative group and in patients with schizophrenia was carried out when solving problems, depending on the level of generalization of the selected trait: by categorical and functional criteria, by specific situational criteria, latent criteria. The results showed statistically significant differences (p<0.01) in the number of visual fixations and the duration of fixations in all three response options: patients with schizophrenia spend significantly more time studying the visual stimulus and commit a greater number of fixations when choosing a feature for generalization (Table 2, Table 3, Table 4).

Table 2 Comparative analysis of the characteristics of oculomotor activity in patients with schizophrenia when generalized by categorical and functional characteristics when solving problems in the "Exclusion of the fourth superfluous" method

Characteristics of oculomotor activity in recognition of stimuli

M± ?

The sum of the ranks

 

U

 

 

Z

 

 

p-level

Patients with schizophrenia (n=45)

The norm (n=59)

Patients with schizophrenia (n=45)

The norm (n=59)

Number of commits

363,84±222,1

55,73 ±49,24

68147,5

549568,5

4078,5

12,13497

0,001

Average fixation time

234,78±59,63

221,72±56,33

43689

568482

28202

2,60603

0,01

Minimum fixation time

80,25±1,36

86,9±16,96

18706

593465

16428

-7,25220

0,001

Maximum fixation time

1119,2±566,35

694,53±416,1

56434,5

555736,5

15456,5

7,63557

0,001

Pupil diameter

3,29±0,6

4,04±0,83

18688

593483

16410

-7,25930

0,001

Table 3 Comparative analysis of the characteristics of oculomotor activity in patients with schizophrenia when generalized according to a specific situational feature in the "Exclusion of the fourth superfluous" method

Characteristics of oculomotor activity in recognition of stimuli

M± ?

The sum of the ranks

 

U

 

Z

 

p-level

Patients with schizophrenia (n=45)

The norm (n=59)

Patients with schizophrenia (n=45)

The norm (n=59)

Number of commits

236,85±140,24

55,73±49,24

116588,5

547539,5

2049,5

16,5052

0,001

Minimum fixation time

80,12±0,97

86,9±16,96

33723,5

624654,5

27837,5

-8,6277

0,001

Maximum fixation time

1210,16±713,78

694,53±416,1

95583,5

562794,5

22514,5

10,2523

0,001

Pupil diameter

3,31±0,62

4,04±0,83

31609,0

626769

25723

-9,2731

0,001

 

Table 4 Comparative analysis of the characteristics of oculomotor activity in patients with schizophrenia when solving latent tasks in the "Exclusion of the fourth superfluous" method

Characteristics of oculomotor activity in recognition of stimuli

M± ?

The sum of the ranks

 

U

 

Z

 

p-level

Patients with schizophrenia (n=45)

The norm (n=59)

Patients with schizophrenia (n=45)

The norm (n=59)

Number of commits

191,92±149,37

55,73 ± 49,24

47341

551624

6134

9,14805

0,001

Average fixation time

252,39±62,01

221,72±  56,33

34199

559306

19026

3,19872

0,001

Minimum fixation time

80,86±3

86,9±  16,96

17275

576230

16000

-4,59172

0,001

Maximum fixation time

1214,94±756,84

694,53±  416,1

41818

551687

11407

6,70609

0,001

Pupil diameter

3,46±0,61

4,04±  0,83

16611

576894

15336

-4,89739

0,001

 

Further, a comparative analysis of oculomotor activity in patients with schizophrenia was carried out when choosing the right answer, i.e. on an essential basis (categorical and functional, specifically situational), and an incorrect answer, i.e. on an insignificant basis (latent). Patients with schizophrenia, when solving the problem of choosing the wrong answer (latent sign), demonstrate fewer fixations and longer fixation time on stimulus images, compared with similar characteristics of oculomotor activity in patients with schizophrenia when choosing the right answers - according to categorical and specific situational signs (p<0.001) (Table 5, Table 6).

Table 5 Comparative analysis of the characteristics of oculomotor activity in patients with schizophrenia when generalized by specific situational and latent signs when solving problems in the "Exclusion of the fourth superfluous" method

Characteristics of oculomotor activity in recognition of stimuli

M± ?

The sum of the ranks

U

Z

p-level

Patients with schizophrenia, a specific situational sign (n=67)

Patients with schizophrenia, latent sign (n=50)

Patients with schizophrenia, a specific situational sign (n=67)

Patients with schizophrenia, latent sign (n=50)

Number of commits

236,85±140,24

191,92±149,37

4361

2542

1267

2,2452

0,05

Minimum fixation time

80,12±0,97

80,86± 3

3614

3289

1336

-3,5431

0,001

 

Table 6 Comparative analysis of the characteristics of oculomotor activity in patients with schizophrenia when generalized by categorical and latent signs when solving problems in the "Exclusion of the fourth superfluous" method

Characteristics of oculomotor activity in recognition of stimuli

M± ?

The sum of the ranks

U

Z

p-level

Patients with schizophrenia, categorical feature (n=108)

Patients with schizophrenia, latent sign (n=50)

Patients with schizophrenia, categorical feature (n=108)

Patients with schizophrenia, latent sign (n=50)

Number of commits

363,84±222,17

191,92±149,37

9987

2574

1299

5,23574

0,001

Minimum fixation time

80,26±1,36

80,86± 3

8129,5

4431,5

2243,5

-3,25711

0,001

 

Next, we analyzed the answers and features of the gaze movement when solving problems in simple difficulty cards. Patients with schizophrenia coped with them more easily: they more often gave answers in accordance with normative ones, demonstrated a categorical level of generalizations. It should be noted that when performing the task in simple cards, patients with schizophrenia also demonstrated oculomotor activity trends similar to the normative group: they fixed their gaze on the correct answer (image) for a longer time and more often.

In the regulatory group as a whole, there were fewer fixations on all 4 images in the cards. When performing the task of identifying a significant feature in simple cards, healthy respondents revealed 2 patterns of eye movement: 1) in some cases, healthy subjects made long–term fixations on 2-3 images, excluding the "extra" object (correct answer); generalization was made at the categorical level; 2) in other cases, the subjects examined all 4 images in the card, but noted a longer fixation on the "extra" object (correct answer) and also Generalization was made at the categorical level. Thus, oculomotor characteristics in the normative group differed in the minimum number of fixations, shorter duration of fixations, absence of long-term fixations on all images, absence of fixation, or an increase in fixation time on an "extra" object (Figure 1). Normally, the images in the cards were studied mainly sequentially, the algorithm "in a circle" (or square) was used more often or the diagonal type (Figure 2).

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Figure 1 Movement of the gaze in the normative group when solving the problem of identifying an essential feature at the categorical level of generalization in the "Exclusion of the fourth superfluous" method

  

 Figure 2. The movement of the gaze (circular or diagonal types of examination of objects) in the normative group when solving the problem of identifying an essential feature at the categorical level in the "Exclusion of the fourth superfluous" method

 

Patients with schizophrenia demonstrated a greater number of fixations, a more detailed study of the details of the drawings, followed by a return to them, fixation outside the studied pictures. There were also different types of algorithms for gaze movement when studying images: linear, diagonal, circular. When examining images in cards of a simple level of complexity, patients with schizophrenia showed similar trends to the normative group: a small number of fixations, decision-making is carried out based on the consideration of 2-3 items on the card with an effective solution to the problem. However, in some of the cards, patients with schizophrenia demonstrated cases of chaotic gaze movement, which may indicate difficulties in finding and highlighting a common feature in the depicted objects (Figure 3, Figure 4, Figure 5).

Figure 3 Gaze movement in a group of patients with schizophrenia with fixation outside the study area when solving the problem of identifying an essential feature at the categorical level of generalization in the "Exclusion of the fourth superfluous" technique

  

Figure 4 Gaze movement in a group of schizophrenia patients with multiple fixations on details when solving the task of identifying an essential feature at the categorical level of generalization in the "Exclusion of the fourth superfluous" method

Figure 5 Gaze movement in a group of schizophrenia patients with a small number of fixations when solving the task of identifying an essential feature at the categorical level of generalization in the "Exclusion of the fourth superfluous" method

           

Next, oculomotor characteristics were analyzed normally and in patients with schizophrenia when considering cards of a more complex level and highlighting the "superfluous" object. The answers were also compared at the categorical, specific-situational level of generalization and on the basis of latent features. The following trends were found.

In the normative group, when solving complex problems, longer fixations and a higher frequency of gaze fixations were carried out on the stimulus image, which was "superfluous" in the card, and these were the correct answers.

In the subgroup of schizophrenia patients who gave correct answers at the categorical level of generalization, patients also showed trends similar to the normative group.

In the subgroup of schizophrenia patients who gave incorrect answers based on the actualization of latent signs, patients did not fix their gaze on the correct "superfluous" objects, but looked at all four images for a longer time. I.e., in the decision-making process, the gaze stopped longer not on images that are "superfluous", from the point of view of most healthy people people, and in completely different images-stimuli. For example, in the card "drill, screw, saw, axe", patients with schizophrenia of this subgroup viewed the image of a saw more often and for a longer time; in the card "guitar, radio, phone, envelope" - they looked at all 4 pictures for the same time; in the card "umbrella, cap, pistol, drum" - they fixed their gaze on the pistol for a longer time. And as a result, these patients solved the problem of choosing an extra item in the card completely randomly, more often based on the actualization of a latent feature and gave the wrong answer.

When evaluating the movement of the gaze in the process of examining the cards and choosing an "extra" object, we found the following pattern: in the normative group, the first fixations on the stimulus are aimed at recognizing the object (2-3 fixations), the study of objects on the card was carried out mainly using two algorithms – in a circle (clockwise or counterclockwise) or diagonally. The minimum number of fixations (2-3) is sufficient for the image to be perceived holistically, and essential features for generalizing objects were highlighted (Figure 6). After the process of searching for an answer to the task begins, more gaze movements on objects are required to compare them and select a grouping feature: which object is superfluous from the 4 presented in the card. Healthy respondents were more likely to generalize based on the minimum number of fixations.

Figure 6. The movement of the gaze in the normative group when solving a problem (cards of a complex level) to identify an essential feature at the categorical level of generalization of the "Exclusion of the fourth superfluous" technique

 

Patients with schizophrenia found a greater number of fixations and gaze movements, as well as slipping from the field of images (Figure 7) when examining objects in complex cards; there was a sequential or alternating comparison, separate parts of the image (details) were considered, chaotic viewing was often observed (Figure 8, 9, 10).

Figure 7 Movement of gaze and sliding from the image field in a group of patients with schizophrenia when solving a problem in the cards of a complex level of the "Exclusion of the fourth superfluous" technique

Figure 8 Gaze movement and fixation on individual image details in a group of patients with schizophrenia when solving a problem in the cards of a complex level of the "Exclusion of the fourth superfluous" technique

 

Figure 9 Gaze movement and chaotic viewing in a group of patients with schizophrenia when solving the problem of identifying an essential feature in the cards of a complex level of the "Exclusion of the fourth superfluous" technique

Figure 10 Gaze movement in a group of patients with schizophrenia when solving a problem based on the actualization of a latent feature in the cards of a complex level of the "Exclusion of the fourth superfluous" technique

Therefore, based on the objective registration of eye movement, we can conclude that a longer fixation of the gaze on the object (image) and a smaller number of fixations on the remaining images of the card may normally indicate the process of choosing a grouping feature. Chaotic eye movements, a large number of fixations in the absence of fixation on any one (superfluous) object reflect the difficulties in finding common links between the depicted objects and choosing a significant grouping feature.

Conclusion

Thus, during the experiment, in which eye movements were recorded with the help of an eye tracker when solving a mental task to search for a common essential feature in images of objects with the allocation of an unnecessary (unsuitable) object in the "Exclusion of the 4th superfluous" method, patterns characteristic of both healthy respondents and patients with schizophrenia were obtained: characteristics eye movements reflect an active process of cognitive processing of information or its difficulties. Thus, prolonged fixation of the gaze on an object (image) against the background of a decrease in the number of fixations on other images may indicate the process of cognitive analysis and choice and decision-making on this basis. Chaotic eye movements, a large number of fixations in the absence of fixation on any one object reflect the difficulties in finding meaningful information for decision-making.

Statistically significant differences in oculomotor (oculomotor) activity in solving mental tasks were also obtained between a group of healthy subjects and a group of patients with schizophrenia:

The normative group produces a minimum number of visual fixations when considering stimulus images in the cards: the first fixations are aimed at recognizing and holistic perception of the object (2-3 fixations); subsequent fixations demonstrate the process of comparing/comparing objects and highlighting an essential, grouping feature for their generalization. At the same time, healthy respondents mainly use two types of algorithms for gaze movement in the process of solving a given mental task: in a circle (clockwise or counterclockwise) and diagonally.

A small number of fixations in the regulatory group may be associated with faster fixations of less than 70 ms, which go beyond the sensitivity of the device.  Despite the fact that longer gaze stops (from 100 ms and above) are considered to be fixations (Wass, S.V., Smith, T.J. et al, 2013), a number of researchers believe that the minimum fixation time should be 50 ms (Barabanshchikov V. A., Zhegallo A.V., 2014).

When solving the generalization problem in the "Exclusion of the fourth superfluous" method in patients with schizophrenia, in comparison with the normative group, an increase in the frequency of visual fixations, the duration of fixations, and an increase in pupil diameter are noted at a high level of statistical significance. In addition, there were slips from the image field when viewing images, a large number of fixations on individual parts of the image (details), chaotic viewing, which may indicate difficulties not so much in the holistic perception of images as in mental operations of comparing and generalizing the depicted objects based on a common grouping feature. As a result, patients with schizophrenia were more likely to give incorrect answers based on random, insignificant, latent signs that did not reflect the real relationships between the objects depicted in the cards. When generalized by latent feature, patients with schizophrenia showed fewer visual fixations on obvious, "correct" superfluous objects and a longer fixation time on all other images, which may indicate a violation of selectivity in the process of visual perception and violations of selectivity and criticality in the process of mental activity. It can be assumed that in the process of comparing the visual stimuli presented on the cards of the "Exclusion of the 4th superfluous" technique, it was difficult for patients with schizophrenia to identify and select the most significant (essential) signs and properties of the depicted objects from the entire volume of diverse visual information. As a result, it was difficult for them to identify a common grouping feature and identify an "unnecessary", unsuitable object.

If we draw an analogy of the observed phenomena with phenomena from Gestalt psychology, then it can be assumed that patients with schizophrenia have difficulty distinguishing a figure from the background, but not at the level of visual perception, but at the level of basic thought processes, where it is necessary to highlight the main feature of an object or phenomenon against a wide range of concomitant various signs.  

At the same time, it should be noted that when solving simple cards, patients with schizophrenia demonstrated a sufficient level of productivity in identifying essential features and trends similar to the normative group, using mainly linear, diagonal, circular types of eye movement algorithms when viewing images. The only thing that distinguished them from healthy respondents was the total number and duration of visual fixations when viewing images in the cards. Patients with schizophrenia spent significantly more time studying the visual stimulus and committed a greater number of fixations when choosing a grouping feature for generalization.

When solving complex cards, patients with schizophrenia who gave correct answers at the categorical level of generalization showed trends in eye movements similar to the normative group. When solving complex cards with the allocation of an incorrect "superfluous" object (based on latent signs), patients with schizophrenia either looked at all 4 images in the card for a long time, getting stuck on the details without fixing their gaze on one thing, which reflected difficulties in identifying a significant, common feature or property of the object, or considered incorrect "superfluous ones for a longer time" objects.

Thus, the conducted research allowed us to conclude that eye movements in solving cognitive tasks to determine a significant common feature in the images of objects presented on the cards accompany the cognitive information processing process and reflect its 2 stages: 1) the recognition of visual images presented on the card is a stage of visual perception; 2) the nomination and verification of hypotheses, analysis, comparison and generalization of visual stimuli, the formulation of an answer (inference) is actually a thought process.

The patterns of oculomotor activity in solving cognitive tasks in healthy subjects and in patients with schizophrenia have been determined. The use of an eyetracker in the study allowed an attempt to objectify the assessment of violations of the process of searching and highlighting a significant (essential) feature of objects through the registration of eye movements when solving the problem of generalizing objects and excluding the 4th superfluous. It has been established that chaotic eye movements reflect impaired mental activity and are associated with the main problem of cognitive activity in patients with schizophrenia - with the choice of a significant (main, essential) feature or property from the whole variety of perceived stimuli.

Limitations and prospects of the study: this study, conducted using the method of contactless registration of oculomotor activity using an eyetracker, leaves the question unresolved at what stage of information processing (thought processes) a failure occurs in solving cognitive tasks in patients with schizophrenia. The problem of objective diagnosis and assessment of mental disorders remains unresolved, and the use of this method alone does not provide a complete picture of these disorders.

In our opinion, a promising step in the study of cognitive disorders in schizophrenia may be the organization and conduct of an experiment that will allow us to consider objectively and in more detail the psychophysiological and neuropsychological levels and stages of the process of solving logical problems and the mechanisms of its violations.

References
1. Abramov, V.A., Putyatin, G.G., & Abramov, A.V. (2008). Mental defect in schizophrenia and the problem of hospitalism. Psychiatry and medical psychology, 1(18), 101-116.
2. Ananyeva, K.I., Barabanshchikov, V.A., & Kharitonov, A.N. (2010). Experiment in psychophysics and psychology of perception. Moscow: Institute of Psychology RAS.
3. Barabanshchikov, V. A., & Zhegallo, A. V. (2014). Eye tracking. Methods for recording eye movements in psychological research and practice. Moscow: Cogito-Center.
4. Barabanshchikov, V. A. (1997). Oculomotor structures of perception. Moscow: Institute of Psychology of the Russian Academy of Sciences.
5. Bleikher, V.M., Kruk, I.V., & Bokov, S.N. (2009). Clinical pathopsychology: a guide for doctors and clinical psychologists. Moscow: Moscow Psychological and Social Institute.
6. Butenko, V.V. (2016). Analysis of methods and systems for recording oculomotor activity // Technical sciences: problems and prospects: materials of the IV International Scientific Conference. St. Petersburg: Svoe publishing house, 1-6.
7. Vladimirov, A.D. (1972). Methods for studying eye movements. Moscow: MSU.
8. Gorkova, I.A. (2011). Main directions of research in pathopsychology / News of the Russian State Pedagogical University named after. A.I. Herzen, 139, St. Petersburg: RGPU im. A.I. Herzen, 21-26.
9. Gurovich, I.Ya., Shmukler, A.B., Magomedova, M.V. (2001). The relationship between neurocognitive deficit and social functioning in patients with schizophrenia and schizoaffective disorders at various stages of the disease // Social and clinical psychiatry, 4, 31-35.
10. Zeigarnik, B.F. (2005). Pathopsychology. 3rd ed. Moscow: Academy.
11. Zotov, M.V. (1999). Cognitive impairments and the possibility of their compensation in patients with schizophrenia with varying degrees of severity of the defect. Diss. Candidate of Psychological Sciences St. Petersburg.
12. Ivanov, M.V., & Neznanov, N.G. (2008). Negative and cognitive disorders in endogenous psychoses: diagnosis, clinic, therapy. St. Petersburg: Publishing house NIPNI named after V.M. Bekhterev.
13. Isaeva, E.R., & Lebedeva, G.G. (2016). Comparative analysis of domestic and foreign approaches to the study of cognitive processes in patients with schizophrenia. Diagnostics in medical (clinical psychology): current state and prospects. Scientific publication. Collective monograph, ed. N.V. Zvereva, I.F. Roshchina. M.: LLC “Sam Polygraphist”, 65-81.
14. Zeigarnik, B.V. (2005). Pathology of thinking. Moscow: MSU.
15. Isaeva, E. R., Tregubenko, I. A., Mukhitova, Yu. V., & Shoshina, I. I. (2021). Functional state of magno- and parvocellular neural systems and cognitive impairment in schizophrenia at different stages of the disease. Russian psychological journal, 18(1), 74-90. DOI: https://doi.org/10.21702/rpj.2021.1.6
16. Isaeva, E.R., Tregubenko, I.A. , Mukhitova, Yu.V., Shoshina, I.I. (2021). Contrast sensitivity of the visual system and cognitive functions in schizophrenia and depression. Human physiology, 5, 1-13.
17. Kabanov, M. M. (1985). Rehabilitation of mentally ill people. Moscow: Medicine.
18. Kritskaya, V.P., & Meleshko, T.K. (2015). Pathopsychology of schizophrenia. Moscow: "Institute of Psychology RAS".
19. Kritskaya, V.P., Meleshko, T.K., Polyakov, & Yu.F. (1991). Pathology of mental activity in schizophrenia. Motivation, communication, cognition. Moscow: MSU.
20. Litvintsev, S.V., Ershov, B.B., Kolchev, A.I., & Kolchev, S.A. (2010). Neuropsychology of cognitive defect and cognitive disorders in patients with schizophrenia of late age / S. V. Litvintsev, B. B. Ershov, A. I. Kolchev, S. A. Kolchev. Clinical psychology: Results. Problems. Prospects. Sat. materials of the All-Russian scientific and practical conference with international participation, 151-156.
21. Mukhitova, Yu.V., Isaeva, E.R., Tregubenko, I.A., Shoshina, I.I., Khanko, A.V., & Limankin, O.V. (2021). Features of the interaction of cognitive functions with the work of the magnocellular and parvocellular neural systems in patients with schizophrenia and patients with endogenous depression. Clinical and special psychology, 4, 93-117. DOI: 10.17759/cpse.2021100405
22. Plotnikov, V.V., & Plotnikov, D.V. (2018). Cognitive activity in various types of schizophrenia. Social and clinical psychiatry, 1, 22-28.
23. Polyakov, Yu.F. (1972). Pathology of cognitive processes. Schizophrenia: a multidisciplinary study, ed. Snezhnevsky A.V., Moscow: Medicine.
24. Rubinstein, S.Ya (2004). Experimental methods of pathopsychology and experience of their application in the clinic. Practical guide. Moscow: April – Press.
25. Sargsyan, G.R., Gurovich, I.Ya., & Keefe, R.S. (2010). Normative data for the Russian population and standardization of the Brief Assessment of Cognitive Functions in Patients with Schizophrenia (BACS) scale. Social and Clinical Psychiatry, 3, 13-19.
26. Skripka, E. Yu. (2011). Research on cognitive impairment in schizophrenia in clinical psychology. Young scientist, 11(34), 107-110.
27. Tkachenko, A. A., Demidova, L. Yu., & Babicheva, N. V. (2018). Oculomotor activity as an indicator of disturbances in perception and programming in persons with schizotypal disorder. Journal of Neurology and Psychiatry named after. S.S. Korsakov, 118(6), 50-57.
28. Yarbus, A. L. (1965). The role of eye movements in the process of vision. Moscow: Nauka.
29. Almubark, I., Chang, L.-C., Shattuck, K. F., Nguyen, T., Turner, R. S., & Jiang, X. (2020). A 5-min Cognitive Task With Deep Learning Accurately Detects Early Alzheimer's Disease. Front. Aging Neurosci. 12:603179. doi:10.3389/fnagi.2020.603179
30. Beedie, S. A., Benson, P. J., & Giegling, I. (2012). Smooth pursuit and visual scanpaths: Independence of two candidate oculomotor risk markers for schizophrenia. World J. Biol. Psychiatry, 13, 200-210.
31. Beedie, S. A., St. Clair, D. M., & Benson, P. J. (2011). Atypical scanpaths in schizophrenia: evidence of a trait- or state-dependent phenomenon? J. Psychiatry Neurosci, 36, 150-164. doi:10.1503/jpn.090169
32. Bell, L., Vogt, J., Willemse, C., Routledge, T., Butler, L. T., & Sakaki, M. (2018). Beyond self-report: a review of physiological and neuroscientific methods to investigate consumer behavior. Front. Psychol, 9, 1655. doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2018.01655
33. Bryson, G. B. (2001). Initial and final work performance in schizophrenia. Cognitive and symptom predictions. J. Nerv. Ment. Dis., 191, 87-92.
34. Connors, B. L., Rende, R., & Colton, T. J. (2016). Beyond self-report: emerging methods for capturing individual differences in the decision-making process. Front. Psychol, 7, 1-5. doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2016.00312
35. Daglas, R., Yücel, M., Cotton, S., Allott, K., Hetrick, S., & Berk, M. (2015). Cognitive impairment in first-episode mania: a systematic review of the evidence in the acute and remission phases of the illness. Int. J. Bipolar Disorder, 3, 9. doi:10.1186/s40345-015-0024-2
36. Fujioka, T., Inohara, K., Okamoto, Y., Masuya, Y., Ishitobi, M., Saito, D. N., et al. (2016). Gazefinder as a clinical supplementary tool for discriminating between autism spectrum disorder and typical development in male adolescents and adults. Mol. Autism, 7, 19. doi:10.1186/s13229-016-0083-y
37. Bestelmeyer, P. E. G., Tatler, B. W., Phillips, L. H., Fraser, G., Benson, P. J., & Clair, St. (2006). Global visual scanning abnormalities in schizophrenia and bipolar disorder. Schizophrenia Research, 87, 212-222.
38. Green, M.F. (2000). Neurocognitive deficits and functional outcome in schizophrenia. M. F. Green, R. S. Kern, D. L. Braff, J. Mintz (Eds.). Schizophrenia Bull, 26, 119-136.
39. Kim, C. K., Kim, S. H., & Choe, B. M. (2004). Symptoms and cognitive function in chronic schizophrenia: 6 Months Follow-up Study. Sleep Medicine and Psychophysiology, 11, 44-49.
40. Kim, J., Park, S., & Blake, R. (2011). Perception of Biological Motion in Schizophrenia and Healthy Individuals: a Behavioral and Fmri Study. PLoS One 6:e19971. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0019971
41. Lee, K. H, & Williams, L. M. (2000). Eye movement dysfunction as a biological marker of risk for schizophrenia. The Australian and New Zealand journal of psychiatry, 34, 91-100.
42. Li, J., Zhong, Y., Han, J., Ouyang, G., Li, X., & Liu, H. (2020). Classifying ASD children with LSTM based on raw videos. Neurocomputing, 390, 226-238. doi:10.1016/j.neucom.2019.05.106
43. Minassian, A., Granholm, E., & Verney, S. (2005). Visual scanning deficits in schizophrenia and their relationship to executive functioning impairment. Schizophr. Res, 74, 69-79.
44. Morita, K., Miura, K., & Fujimoto, M. (2017). Eye movement as a biomarker of schizophrenia: Using an integrated eye movement score. Psychiatr. Clin. Neurosci, 71, 104-114.
45. Kutz, M. M., Selter, I. C., V, I. K. et al. (2005). Neurocognitive function in schizophrenia at a 10 Year Follow-up. A prelminlaty investigation. CNS Spectr, 10, 277-280.
46. Nuechterlein K. H., Dawson M. E., & Green, M. F. (2006). Information-processing abnormalities as neuropsychological vulnerability indicators for schizophrenia. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 384, 71-79.
47. Nyoni, T., & Bonga, W. G. (2017). Neuromarketing: no brain. No Gain! J. Econ. Finance, 2, 17-29.
48. Pop, N., Al, Dabija, D. C., & Iorga, A. M. (2014). Ethical responsibility of neuromarketing companies in harnessing the market research - A global exploratory approach. Amfiteatru Econ, 16, 26-40.
49. Rutkowski, T. M., Abe, M. S., Koculak, M., & Otake-Matsuura, M. (2020). “Classifying Mild Cognitive Impairment from Behavioral Responses in Emotional Arousal and Valence Evaluation Task - AI Approach for Early Dementia Biomarker in Aging Societies - AI A,” in Proceedings of the Annual International Conference of the IEEE Engineering in Medicine and Biology Society, EMBS. (United States: Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers Inc). doi:10.1109/EMBC44109.2020.917580
50. Scholl, J., & Klein-Flügge, M. (2018). Understanding psychiatric disorder by capturing ecologically relevant features of learning and decision-making. Behav. Brain Res. 355, 56-75. doi:10.1016/j.bbr.2017.09.050
51. Shiino, T., Miura, K., Fujimoto, M., Kudo, N., Yamamori, H., Yasuda, Y., et al. (2020). Comparison of eye movements in schizophrenia and autism spectrum disorder. Neuropsychopharmacol. Rep. 40, 92-95. doi:10.1002/npr2.v40.1
52. Sereno, A. B., Holzman, P. S. (1993). Express Saccades and Smooth Pursuit Eye Movement Function in Schizophrenic, Affective Disorder, and Normal Subjects. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 5, 303-316.
53. S. Van Hooren. (2017). Social cognition and neurocognition as independent domains in psychosis. Schizophr. Res, 103, 257-265.
54. Thakkar, K. N., Diwadkar, V. A., & Rolfs, M. (2017). Oculomotor prediction: A window into the psychotic mind. Trends Cog. Sci, 21, 344-356.
55. Türkan, B. N., Amado, S., Ercan, E. S., & Perçinel, I. (2016). Comparison of change detection performance and visual search patterns among children with/without ADHD: evidence from eye movements. Res. Dev. Disabil, 4, 205-215. doi:10.1016/j.ridd.2015.12.002
56. Velligan, D. I. (1999). Executive function in schizophrenia. Sem Clin Neuropsychiatry, 4, 24-33.
57. Wass, S.V., Smith, T.J. & Johnson, M.H. (2013). Parsing eye-tracking data of variable quality to provide accurate fixation duration estimates in infants and adults. Behav Res, 45, 229-250. doi:10.3758/s13428-012-0245-6
58. Wolf, A., Ueda, K., & Hirano, Y. (2021). Recent updates of eye movement abnormalities in patients with schizophrenia: a scoping review. Psychiatry Clin. Neurosci. 75, 82-100. doi:10.1111/pcn.13188
59. Yahata, N., Kasai, K., & Kawato, M. (2017). Computational neuroscience approach to biomarkers and treatments for mental disorders. Psychiatry Clin. Neurosci, 71, 215-237.
60. Zaltman, G. (2003). How Customers Think: Essential Insights into the Mind of the Market, 1st Edn. United States: Harvard Business School Press.

Peer Review

Peer reviewers' evaluations remain confidential and are not disclosed to the public. Only external reviews, authorized for publication by the article's author(s), are made public. Typically, these final reviews are conducted after the manuscript's revision. Adhering to our double-blind review policy, the reviewer's identity is kept confidential.
The list of publisher reviewers can be found here.

The paper "Features of oculomotor activity (eye movement) in patients with schizophrenia in recognizing essential signs using the example of the "Exclusion of the 4th superfluous" technique" is presented for review. The subject of the study. The work is aimed at determining the characteristics of oculomotor activity in patients with schizophrenia and in healthy respondents when solving the cognitive task of searching and choosing a common (unifying) feature with the definition of an unsuitable (superfluous) object on this basis. In general, the author has achieved the goal and solved the tasks. The methodology of the research is the priority directions in the history of the study of schizophrenia, which were presented in their works by I.Ya. Gurovich, B.V. Zeigarnik, M.V. Zotov, Kritskaya V.P., Magomedova M.V., Velligan D.I. and others. Special attention is paid to works that consider oculomotor activity, ensuring the receipt, transformation and further use of visual information obtained through the visual apparatus: K.I. Ananyeva, V.A. Barabanshchikov, A.V. Zhegallo, A.N. Kharitonov, A.L. Yarbus, etc. The paper considers technologies that allow to identify cognitive impairment in solving problems of primary and differential diagnosis, as well as to monitor the mental state and functioning of a person (Bryson G. B., Bestelmeyer P. E. G., Tatler B. W., Phillips L. H., Fraser G., Benson P. J., Clair St, Morita K., Miura K., Fujimoto M, Thakkar K. N., Diwadkar V. A., Rolfs M., Scholl, J., and Klein-Fl?gge, M., Rutkowski, T. M., Abe, M. S., Koculak, M., and Otake-Matsuura, M. The author analyzed studies that describe the characteristics of oculomotor activity in patients with various neuropsychiatric disorders in comparison with the norm (Miura K., Shiino T., Fujimoto M. And others). The relevance of the study is due to the scarcity of studies that consider the development of thinking in patients with schizophrenia. The scientific novelty of the research. The author defines the characteristics of oculomotor activity in patients with schizophrenia and in healthy respondents when solving the cognitive task of searching and choosing a common (unifying) feature with the definition of an unsuitable (superfluous) object on this basis. Style, structure, content. The style of presentation corresponds to publications of this level. The language of the work is scientific. The structure of the work is clearly traced, the author highlights the main semantic parts. The introduction indicates the relevance of the problem raised. The author defines the statement of relevance, highlights current problems. The paper describes the purpose of the article, as well as highlights the theoretical and methodological basis of the study. The next section is devoted to the description of the main theoretical approaches that consider: research of the cognitive sphere, mechanisms of pathology of thinking, disorders of selectivity of thinking; features of neurocognitive, psycho- and neuro-linguistic aspects of disorders of cognitive functions (neurocognitive deficit), features of eye movement, etc. Particular attention is paid to the consideration of eye tracking, which is considered a promising approach to increase the assessment of the reliability of the results and objectification of this process, as well as studies that describe the characteristics of oculomotor activity in patients with various neuropsychiatric disorders in comparison with the norm. This section presents the organizational and methodological apparatus of the study, describes the respondents, describes the features of the analysis and mathematical processing of the results obtained. In order to assess the level of generalization and its disorders in the thinking of patients with schizophrenia, the author used the “Exclusion of the fourth superfluous" technique. The calculation of mathematical and statistical data was performed in the STATISTICA 10 program using the following statistical analysis methods: descriptive statistics, frequency analysis, comparative analysis using the Mann-Whitney criterion. The main section is devoted to the description of the research results. The author presented: a comparative analysis of the characteristics of oculomotor activity in patients with schizophrenia and in the normative group in solving mental problems in the method "Exception to the fourth extra"; - comparative analysis of the characteristics of oculomotor activity in patients with schizophrenia in the generalization of categorical and functional characteristics when solving problems in the method "Exception to the fourth extra"; - comparative analysis of the characteristics of oculomotor activity in patients with schizophrenia during the synthesis on the concrete situational basis in the method "Exception to the fourth extra"; comparative analysis of the characteristics of oculomotor activity in patients with schizophrenia in the task of the latent trait in the method "Exception to the fourth extra"; - comparative analysis of the characteristics of oculomotor activity in patients with schizophrenia during the synthesis on the concrete situational and latent characteristics when solving problems in the method "Exception to the fourth extra"; - comparative analysis of the characteristics of oculomotor activity in patients with schizophrenia in the generalization of categorical latent characteristics when solving problems in the method "Exception to the fourth extra"; - the movement of opinion in the normative group in task allocation essential feature on a categorical level of generalization in the method "Exception to the fourth extra"; - expect (circular or diagonal types of consideration items) in the normative group in task allocation essential feature on a categorical level in the method "Exception to the fourth extra"; - the movement of opinion in the group of patients with schizophrenia with fixing outside of the study area while solving the problem of allocation of essential basis for the categorical level of generalization in the method "Exception to the fourth extra"; - the movement of opinion in the group of patients with schizophrenia with multiple commits on the details while solving the problem of allocation of essential basis for the categorical level of generalization in the method "Exception to the fourth extra"; - the movement of opinion in the group of patients with schizophrenia with a small number of fixations in task allocation essential feature on a categorical level of generalization in the method "Exception to the fourth extra"; - motion look in the normative group in solving the problem (cards difficult level) for highlighting a significant feature on the categorical level of generalization of the method "Exception to the fourth extra"; - the movement of eyes and slipping from the image field in the group of patients with schizophrenia in the solution of the problem in the cards complexity of the method "Exception to the fourth extra"; - motion of gaze fixation on individual parts of an image in the group of patients with schizophrenia in solving the problem in the cards complexity of the method "Exception to the fourth extra"; - the movement of the eyes and the chaotic viewed in the group of patients with schizophrenia in the solution of the allocation of a significant feature in the cards complexity of the method "Exception to the fourth extra"; - the movement of opinion in the group of patients with schizophrenia in the solution of the problem based on the actualization of the latent trait in the cards complexity of the method "Exception to the fourth extra". The author concludes that, based on the objective registration of eye movement, a longer fixation of the gaze on the object (image) and a smaller number of fixations on the remaining images of the card may normally indicate the process of choosing a grouping feature. Chaotic eye movements, a large number of fixations in the absence of fixation on any one (superfluous) object reflect the difficulties in finding common links between the depicted objects and choosing a significant grouping feature. The article concludes with a section with a conclusion and summing up.
At the end of the work, the author summarized the main results and made a number of conclusions. In addition, the limitations and prospects of the study are highlighted. The author notes that the question has not been disclosed at which stage of information processing (thought processes) a failure occurs in solving cognitive tasks in patients with schizophrenia, and the problem of objective diagnosis and assessment of mental disorders has not been solved. As a prospect for further research, the organization and conduct of an experiment is highlighted, which will allow us to consider objectively and in more detail the psychophysiological and neuropsychological levels and stages of the process of solving logical problems and the mechanisms of its violations. Bibliography. The bibliography of the article includes 60 domestic and foreign sources, a small part of which has been published in the last three years. The list contains mainly articles and abstracts. At the same time, there are educational and methodological materials, monographs and online sources. The sources are mostly correctly designed, but not uniformly in all positions. Appeal to opponents. Recommendations: - to analyze the information that is presented in each table and in each figure. Conclusions. The problems of the article are of undoubted relevance, theoretical and practical value; it will be of interest to specialists who deal with the problems of thinking development in patients with schizophrenia. The article may be recommended for publication, it is important to take into account the highlighted recommendations. This makes it possible to submit to the editorial board a research article that is characterized by scientific novelty and significance.