Prerequisites for the formation of schools of Chinese Buddhism in the Nanbeichao period.

Orbodoeva Marina Valer'evna PhD in History Researcher, Institute for Mongolian, Buddhist and Tibetan Studies SB RAS 670047, Russia, Republic of Buryatia, Ulan-Ude, Sakhyanova str., 6 orbodoevamv@yandex.ru Other publications by this author

The division of China into Southern and Northern kingdoms began with the capture of the nomadic tribes of the Tobians of the northern part of the Eastern Jin (317-420). By this time, the rule of the Eastern Jin Dynasty was characterized by political chaos, internal strife, economic decline, famine and devastation. The leader of the Tobians, Toba Gui (371-409), established the Northern Wei Dynasty (386-534) in the conquered part of northern China. Subsequently, four kingdoms were formed here in the North – Eastern Wei (534-550), Western Wei (535-556), Northern Qi (550-577) and Northern Zhou (557-581).

Five kingdoms were formed in the South: Song (Liu Song) (420-479); Southern Qi (479-502); Liang (502-557); Late Liang (555-587); Chen (557-589). Their formation was the result of ongoing internal strife and contradictions in the Eastern Jin Empire. The founder of the first southern kingdom, Liu Yu (right. 420-422), having overthrown the Eastern Jin Dynasty, founded his own Liu Song dynasty. Unlike the northern alien dynasties, Liu Song was a Chinese dynasty. Other southern kingdoms also continued to be dominated by Chinese dynasties.

With the division of China into the Southern and Northern kingdoms, economic, political and social development in them went differently. The development of Buddhism also went differently [2:2]. And it was the period of the Northern and Southern Kingdoms that became a kind of prerequisite for the formation of Chinese schools of Buddhism proper, the appearance of which marked the final formation of Buddhism in China, the formation of a new direction of Buddhism in the Far East, known as "Chinese Buddhism" [9:15]. Translations of texts into Chinese became the basis for the formation of schools of Buddhism.

The tradition of translation activities of the Eastern Jin was continued in the Southern and Northern kingdoms. However, unlike the Eastern Jin, where the main focus was on the texts of Prajnaparamita, the translation emphasis shifted to the texts of yogachara. Dharmaruchi (Tanmoluzhi), Bodhiruchi (Putiluzhi), Ratnamati (Lenamoti) Buddhasanta (Fotoshando), who arrived from India to the North of China, especially manifested themselves in this field. They brought with them the yogachara sutras, which were created in India, becoming known as the "second wave" sutras, as well as the Asanga and Vasubandhu shastras, explaining the essence of the content of the yogachara sutras. The most famous were their translations of the Dashabhumika Sutra-shastra (Shidi jinglun), written by Vasubandhu, the Lankavatara Sutra (Zhulengjia jing), the Mahayana Samgrahi (Shadacheng lun) [see 3]. At the same time, it should be noted that the translated texts of Buddhism caused an ambiguous interpretation of their content. During the Eastern Jin period, discussions arose around the content of certain texts, which were continued under the Southern and Northern kingdoms. The interpretation of "Dashabhumika Shasta" caused great controversy, which in the future will become one of the significant texts of the Fasyan and Huayan school. The debate continued around the understanding of the problem of emptiness, which began during the Eastern Jin period. Gradually, groups of like-minded people formed around one or another version of the understanding of emptiness, which were called "six schools and seven directions" ("Liujiazizong"). It was these "six schools and seven directions" that gave impetus to the formation of schools of Chinese Buddhism in China [See 8:76-84].

Six schools and seven directions existed in Chinese Buddhism of the Jin era as separate currents, which reflected the attempts of Chinese Buddhists to adequately interpret the teachings of Prajnaparamita. They were qualified later for the schools (?, jia) and directions (?, zong). The division of these currents into six schools and seven directions was proposed by the Buddhist monk Tan Ji, who lived during the Song Dynasty (420-479) of the era of the Southern and Northern Kingdoms. He wrote about this in his essay "Liu jia qi zong lun" (About six schools and seven directions). This work has been lost, but references to it have been preserved in the work "Xu fa lun" (Supplement to the doctrine of the dharmas) by the Buddhist monk Bao Chang of the Liang era (502-557) of the Southern and Northern Kingdoms and the work "Zhao lun shu" (Commentary on the writings of Seng Zhao) by the monk Yuan Kang of the Tang era. The latter says: "The Liang monk Bao Chang created the work "Supplement to the doctrine of the Dharmas" in 160 juan, the monk Tan Ji from the Song monastery Zhuang Yan created a treatise "On the six schools and seven directions." Both of them write about six schools, which are divided into seven directions. The first direction is Ben wu zong (the absence of the root), the second is Ben Wu and zong (the distinction of the absence of the root), the third is ji se zong (the emphasis on external phenomena), the fourth is Shi han zong (the contents of consciousness), the fifth is Huan hua zong (, illusory transformations), the sixth is Xin wu zong (, lack of consciousness), the seventh is Yuan Hui zong (, occurrence through causality). Initially there were six of them, but the first one was divided into two: "absence of root" and "discernment of absence of root" [7:141-142].

The greatest fame in the Northern kingdoms, as a translator of Buddhist texts, was acquired by Dharmakshema, who arrived in China at the invitation of the specific ruler of the Hexi lands, who "usurped Liangzhou and proclaimed himself sovereign" [3: 156]. His name is associated with the translation of two iconic Mahayana texts - "Maha-pari-nirvana Sutra" (Da bo nepan jing), known as "Nirvana Sutra" and "Lankavatara Sutra" (Leng jia jing). The translation of these sutras was extremely important for the further development of philosophical soteriological ideas of Buddhism in China. The text of the Nirvana Sutra contained the idea that the Buddha nature is contained in everything. This provision of the sutra made it possible for Kumarajiva's disciple Tao Sheng to put forward the famous thesis about the possibility of instantaneous achievement (Dun wu cheng fo). This thesis has become a fundamental guideline in the formation of the soteriology of Buddhist schools formed in China.

"Nirvana Sutra" was later repeatedly translated again, but the palm in its translation remains for the Dharmakshema. "Lankavatara Sutra" is the text of the recordings of the Buddha's sermons on Mount Lanka. This sutra was of great importance in the formation of the Yogachara and Chan schools in China.

Translation activities also developed very successfully in the Southern Kingdoms. Such translators as Fotushen, Tanmomido (Dharmamitra), Tsyunabamo, Isheboluo, Senjiabamo, Tsyunabatolo (Gunabhadra) arrived here in the Liu Song period (420-588). Fotoshi (Buddhajiva), Kalayashas (Jiangliang-yeshe) [4: 30].

The names of the translators Tanmomido (Dharmamitra), Tsyunabatolo (Gunabhadra), Kalayashas (Jiangliang-yeshe), Fotoshi (Buddhajiva) were included in the bibliographic work "Gao seng zhuan" ("Biography of worthy monks"), written by monk Hui Jiao (497-554).

Tanmomido (Dharmamitra) became known in China as the "Great Mentor of Dhyana". The concept of "dhyana", meaning "contemplation", "meditation", was transcribed as "channa". At that time, the teachings of Chan Buddhism had not yet been formed, but some texts dedicated to dhyana (chan) had already been translated. The beginning of the translation of dhyana texts was laid by An Shigao. Dharmamitra translated and published a number of texts dedicated to dhyana – "Chan jing", "Chan fa yao", etc. [3:184].

Kalayashas translated the "Sutra on the Contemplation of Buddha Amitayus" (Guan ulanshou jing). This is a sutra about the Pure Land of Amitabha. Some texts about the land of Amitabha began to be translated back in the era of the Three Kingdoms. However, Kalayashas' translation was more accurate. His translation had a huge impact on the development and formation of the Jingtu school (school of pure land).

There are very few lines dedicated to Buddhajiva in Hui Jiao's essay. The completion of translations of all Vinaya texts is associated with his name. Gunabhadra owns a secondary translation of the Lankavatar sutra, as well as the "Samyukta-agama sutra" (Zaahan jing).

Paramartha (Zhendi, 499-569) became the most famous translator of Buddhist texts in the Southern Kingdoms. During his 23 years in China, he translated 49 texts with a volume of 142 yuan. His translations are mainly devoted to the texts of yogachara. Among them are the texts of the Asanga "Mahayana–sanparigraha–shastra" (She dacheng lun), Vasubandhu "Commentary on Mahayana" or "Mahayana sangraha bhashya" (She dacheng lunshi), "Treatise on the Awakening of Faith in Mahayana" or "Mahayana-sraddhotpada-shastra", which is attributed to Ashvaghosha.

These shastras played a big role in the formation of the Yogachara teaching in India and the formation of the Fasyan school in China. "Mahayana–sraddhotpada–shastra" ("Dacheng qixin lun") also had great significance in the teachings of the Tiantai, Chan and Huayan schools. According to the famous scholar Feng Yulan, this shastra has become a kind of textbook for the Chinese [5:118].

The activity of translators of Buddhist literature in China, starting from the Han era (206 BC – 220 AD) and up to the era of the Southern and Northern Kingdoms (420-589) inclusive, reached such an abundance of translations that it became necessary to create catalogs of Buddhist texts (zhongjing mulu). And already at the beginning of the VI century, three catalogues were compiled. The first was published by monk Senshao in 515, the second by Baochang in 518, and the third by monk Seng-yu under the title "Collection of Information on the Translations of the Tripitaka" (Chusanzang jiji). Only the catalog published by Seng Yu has reached our time. Today it is an invaluable historical source [4: 30].

The translation activity of Buddhist missionaries of the era of the Southern and Northern Kingdoms, despite the political, economic and social difficulties caused by internecine strife, the invasion of nomadic tribes, devastation and famine, steadily continued. In this era, the texts of the Yogachara school most often fell into the orbit of translation activity, which was a reflection of the development of Buddhism in India. It was during this period that the "second wave" sutras were formed in India, among which the most popular is the "Samdhinirmochana Sutra", the ideas of which formed the basis of the works of the founders of the yogachar school Asanga and Vasubandhu. Yogachara texts were intensively translated, both in the North and in the South. In addition, both in the South and in the North, repeated translations became very important, which conveyed the content of Buddhist texts more accurately. It is they who will later have a great influence on the formation of the doctrinal content of the schools of Chinese Buddhism. The number of repeated translations included the sutras of Amidaism, which have gained great popularity not only in China, but also in neighboring Japan. A very remarkable phenomenon was the translation of the Nirvana Sutra, which, along with the texts of the Prajnaparamita sutras (Bozhebolomido Jing), the Avatamsaka Sutra (Huayang-jing) and the Lotus Sutra (Fahua Jing), translated during the Eastern Jin period, will become the fundamental canon that determined the main direction of the development of the philosophical and soteriological concept of Chinese Buddhism. Thus, the translations of the era of the Southern Northern Kingdoms not only continued the translation traditions of the Eastern Jin, but also made a significant contribution to the development of Buddhism in China, preparing the textual ground for the formation of schools of Chinese Buddhism, which began in the subsequent Sui era (581-618) and ended in the Tang era (618-907) ^[9].