The role of key Sherpa holidays in preserving and broadcasting their traditional culture in modern Tibet

Si Junfei ORCID: 0009-0008-0988-3715 PhD in Cultural Studies Postgraduate Student, Department of Art and Design, Far Eastern Federal University 690922, Russia, Primorsky Krai, Vladivostok, Russian Island str., FEFU campus, office building 7.1, room 325 xijunfei0818@163.com

Fedorovskaya Natal'ya Aleksandrovna ORCID: 0000-0002-8789-7994 Doctor of Art History Director of the Department of Arts and Design, Far Eastern Federal University 690922, Russia, Primorsky Krai, Vladivostok, Russian Island str., ajax 10, of. F406 fedorovskaya.na@dvfu.ru

Sherpas belong to cross-border ethnic groups, in China they live mainly in the Tibet Autonomous Region, and belong to an unrecognized ethnic minority that is not part of the 56 ethnic groups of China, as well as in Nepal and India. The researchers note that "Sherpas are a cross—border ethnic group living on both sides of the Himalayas on the borders of China, Nepal, India and Bhutan, with the bulk of the Sherpas, about 40 thousand people, living in Nepal. And about 4.6 thousand people live in Tibet (China), mainly in the village of Zhangmu in Nyalam County and the village of Chentang in Tingtze County and other places" ^{[1, p. 29]}.

According to the seventh national population census of China conducted in 2020, the number of unrecognized ethnic groups in Tibet amounted to 4,204 people, but the exact number of Sherpas is not indicated in the statistics (see: /// . URL: http://www.stats.gov.cn/sj/pcsj/rkpc/7rp/zk/indexch.htm ). The extremely small number of Sherpas and their belonging to a cross-border ethnic group makes it especially important to study and protect their distinctive culture.

Holidays remain ways and opportunities to fully reflect and present the culture of ethnic minorities, therefore, research materials on Sherpa holidays are often mentioned when studying their rituals and customs.

In this paper, based on a generalized analysis of the vast number of available materials, the most presentation holidays of the Sherpas are considered, which can later become the basis for the formation of the festival culture of this people.

There are practically no separate major Russian studies devoted to the traditional holidays and customs of this people, with the exception of references in dictionaries, encyclopedias (the Great Soviet Encyclopedia, Ozhegov's Explanatory Dictionary), which provides a brief information reference on the number and distribution of the population, clothing, eating habits, etc.

S. I. Petrova compares the Sherpas of Nepal with the Yakuts, the indigenous people of Siberia, looking for common features in their cultures ^[2]. Brief information about Sherpa traditions was also revealed by Western researchers, for example in the works of J. Spoon ^[3], A. Tharkay ^[4], Peoples of Nepal Sherpa ^[5], J. Tenzing ^[6]. These studies mainly focus on the Sherpa-related mountaineering tourism industry and take Sherpas in Nepal as an example. At this stage of the study, no specialized works on Chinese Sherpas living in Tibet in Russian were revealed.

The novelty of the study is seen in the introduction to the circle of Russian researchers of new and updated information about the festive culture of Chinese Sherpas based on modern research by Chinese scientists, as well as in identifying the role of the holidays in question as a way to preserve and broadcast the culture of Sherpas. The research materials will allow Russian scientists to understand more broadly the features of traditional Sherpa holidays and Sherpa culture in general. At the same time, they contribute to the further comparative study of the culture of Russian and Chinese ethnic minorities.

In the XX century, Chinese researchers gradually began to study the Sherpa people. Thus, Yuan Chaojun presented information about traditions ^[7]; we note the results of field research by Liu Hongji ^[8] and Zou Qicai ^[9], who lived and worked in the Sherpa settlement for a long time, studying their customs.

In the XXI century . Liu Zhiqun studied the everyday and wedding customs of the Sherpas ^[10]. Che Pai and other scientists visited Sherpa settlements in 2004 to conduct field research, and then compiled a report in which they presented in detail the life and traditions of the Sherpas ^[11]. In 2022, Fan Jiuhui published a book in which he outlined his understanding of Sherpa customs, obtained as a result of more than ten visits to traditional settlements ^[12]. In addition, the holidays and customs of the Sherpas are presented in the books of Chen Liming "Tibetan folk Culture" ^[13] and Jun Da "Tibetan Folk Tourist Culture" ^[14], which are also important materials for the study of these nationalities.

The main reason for the insignificant amount of research material on Sherpas is that these people live in remote areas of Tibet, in high-altitude valleys and gorges, where transport links are poorly developed; their isolated lifestyle causes problems of language communication with researchers who do not speak their dialect. It is worth noting that some of the research material is sufficiently outdated, and the existing works are mostly based on the method of documentary analysis based on other people's materials. There are even fewer materials about the festivals and holidays of these nationalities, and this topic is not fully disclosed in the currently existing works. Moreover, the available materials are mostly brief and general in nature, without in-depth analysis and research.

Sherpa holidays, as well as traditional holidays of other peoples, are closely connected with the calendar and agricultural cycle, which reflects the change of seasons, agricultural and cattle-breeding rites and holidays, as well as with the family and household cycle aimed at regulating the life cycles of the people (birth, wedding, funeral, initiation, etc.). Along with with traditional pagan beliefs, the Sherpa people embraced Buddhism, adapting it according to their worldview and including it in their circle of holidays. Let's look at a few key Sherpa holidays.

New Year

Sherpas are deeply influenced by Tibetan culture and celebrate the New Year according to the Tibetan calendar (Fig. 1).

It is not always possible to accurately establish the dates of the beginning of the celebration. The Sherpas living in the Chentang district of Dingtze County of Shigatse City (Chinese: , pinyin: x? c?ng r? k? z? sh? d?ng ji? xi?n ch?n t?ng q?) have three varieties of celebrating the New Year "on the first day of December according to the Tibetan calendar - the so-called "New Year of Expectation", on the first day of January according to the Tibetan calendar — "The Year of the King" and on the first day of February according to the Tibetan calendar — "The Year of the poor" ^[16].

After the democratic transformations in Tibet of the PRC in 1959, the Sherpas in the port of Zhangmu (Chinese:, pinyin: zh?ng m? k?u ?n), under the influence of local military and government authorities, the celebration of the New Year was moved from the first day of January according to the Tibetan calendar to the first day of January according to the Gregorian calendar and became a new tradition.

However, this custom gradually changed after the 1990s. In the 1990s, the state increased its support for the construction of Zhangmu Port (Fig. 2) (Illustrations by Baidu).

A large number of migrants went to the port to do business and trade, and the New Year of the local Sherpas changed again. "After the opening of the port, with the increase in the number of Tibetans, people began to celebrate the Tibetan New Year... Now they treat this holiday in the same way as the Tibetans, and gradually lose their own traditional Sherpa holiday" ^{[17, p. 104]}.

Researchers describe the traditional form of the holiday as follows: "With the advent of the New Year, sutra ribbons are changed in every family, sheep and cows are slaughtered, new dishes and wine are prepared, firewood is harvested, the house is cleaned and the walls are painted. Early in the morning on New Year's Eve, every family goes to a spring or stream to collect a bucket of fresh water and wash. In the New Year, it is customary to gather with your family and not go to visit friends and relatives. On the second day, young people invite each other to celebrate the New Year together. On the second, third and fourth days of the holiday, the elders of the family receive guests at home. In some villages, daughters and sons-in-law must bring wine, sticks of butter and three eggs to their doorstep, as well as a special dish consisting of pieces of radish fried in oil, on top of which a little melted butter is also put to attract good luck. The elders are universally respected, every year and holiday in every family there should be someone who will come to visit the elder (the oldest member of the community - approx. in order to receive his blessing and bring him several gifts, the old man must also give several gifts in return. Bringing gifts in an odd number is considered good luck, and in an even number it is a bad omen" ^{[13, p. 339]}.

New Year is the most important holiday of the Sherpas, which is very lively, and New Year's customs include both religious and secular events. Sherpa New Year customs also reflect respect for elders and the elderly.

The difference in the time of the onset of the New Year among the Sherpas is also one of the main features of this nationality. Sherpas are deeply influenced by Tibetan culture, and this is also clearly reflected in the celebration of the New Year. No matter when the New Year comes, the food during the festival, festive events and other customs are exactly the same as in the Tibetan New Year celebrated in other territories. However, there are also local specifics. For example, Sherpas visit elderly people in the village during the holiday — this is a custom that is rarely found in the New Year among other ethnic minorities (Fig. 3). 

Thus, the traditional customs of the Sherpas are strongly influenced by the external environment, the Tibetans have the greatest influence on the customs of the Sherpas. The Sherpa New Year is constantly changing in time and customs under the influence of Tibetans and the external environment; on the contrary, Sherpa customs have less influence on the outside world. It can be assumed that the main reason for the unilateral impact is the small number of Sherpas themselves and the lack of promotion of their culture by state structures.

Agricultural holidays

Sherpas have long been engaged in agriculture and cattle breeding, and over time, some agricultural holidays gradually arose. Here are the key stages of some Sherpa holidays, indicating the presence of their own local culture.

For example, the Ao Siao festival (Chinese: pinyin: ? xi?o ji?), also known as the "Village Field Protection Festival", is an appeal to the gods to protect the earth from disasters and is usually held on the occasion of the local spring sowing. Due to the high altitude, spring sowing is carried out here much later than on the plains of China, usually in late April – early May according to the Gregorian calendar.

"On the morning of the ceremony, the villagers elect representatives (of the community — approx. author) to visit the house of Noah (kit.: , pinyin: nu? a. Noah is a person who is responsible for a certain type of activity and is elected by all residents of the village — approx. author). Noah asks the lama to come to his house in advance to make a good "do ma" and put it on the table of offerings (Chinese: , pinyin: du? m?, prepared from peeled barley and butter from yak milk, the mixture is kneaded into food for sacrifices, placed on a tray or wooden stand — approx. author) (fig. 4).

"After breakfast at Noah's house, the guests remove a small flag from a wooden pole, give it to the boy and leave the house. A boy holds a flag in front of him, followed by two girls in full festive attire, two lamas with cymbals, the oldest representative of the village holding a bronze disk with "do ma" depicting the four directions of the god of protection, three people holding sutras, and, finally, the villagers. The procession stops at each site (special places on the four cardinal points around the village — approx. the author), sets the "do ma" in a prominent place and reads prayers. It is believed that the statues placed in different places will be surrounded by a closed area to protect the lands of the villagers. The ceremony ends when four "do ma" are placed around the village, after which everyone returns to Noah's house" ^{[13, p. 340]}.

Cattle play an important role in folk agriculture, and many Sherpa holidays are directly related to it. "Summer Wine Festival (Chinese: , Pinyin: xi? ji? ji?)" also called "Cow Festival" is a prayer ceremony for all livestock breeders, designed to protect their cattle and sheep from disasters before they leave their villages to graze on high—altitude pastures. "Every year, when the grass turns green and becomes juicy in spring, the Sherpas take the cattle to pastures, and in autumn, when the grass withers, they return to the village with the cattle to survive the winter. Sherpas feed it with grass and salt so that the animals are fat and strong. This is done not only for livestock to multiply and flourish, but also gives people great hope for peace from year to year" ^{[14, p. 169]}.

The Working Cattle Festival (Chinese: , Pinyin: g?ng ni? ji?) is another Sherpa festival associated with animals, which is held every year on October 24 according to the Tibetan calendar. This is an autumn holiday dedicated to gratitude to animals for their help in agricultural work. "Sherpas believe that oxen work very hard every year, plowing fields for people, and to reward the oxen for their year-round diligence, this holiday is specially held. During the holiday, each family dresses up their oxen: some attach to the horns of the oxen a set of different colors collected in a garland; others attach silk flowers to their heads; others decorate their tails with threads with a variety of brightly colored flowers. They treat the beautifully decorated animals with the best food, and then take them to the hillside to graze. Sherpas pre-fence the pasture site with a bamboo fence, and next to it they build a hut made of bamboo, light a fire in it, drink good tea, barley wine, and eat fried fruits. Everyone eats and drinks, sings and dances on this day" ^{[14, p. 169]}.

Sherpas, who lead a traditional lifestyle, mainly earn their living from agriculture. Land and animals are a significant theme of Sherpa agricultural holidays. At the same time, Sherpa agricultural festivals are full of religious rituals that are little known to Russian researchers.

Religious holidays

Currently, there is no exact information about when Buddhism came to the lands of the Sherpas. Wang Siqi, for example, came to the conclusion that Sherpas lived in southern Tibet of China and Nepal already in the middle of the XVI century. ^[19]. Liu Hongji points out that "Sherpas adhere to exactly the same beliefs as Tibetans, and generally believe in Tibetan Buddhism" ^{[8, p. 150]}. Zhai Shende writes that "about 400 years ago, when the ancestors of the Sherpas crossed the political border between present-day Nepal and the Tibetan Autonomous Region of the People's Republic of China, Buddhism already had an influence on Bon and other ideological sects of Tibetan Buddhism" ^{[20, p. 132]}.

It has been established that Sherpas, as a rule, profess Tibetan Buddhism. For this nation, which has long lived in high-altitude valleys and has no connection with the outside world, religion occupies an important place in life, so the number of religious holidays is large. Nan Ying notes: "The Sherpas' life is still focused on religion, and they use the money received from tourists to maintain their faith: they repair temples, build new altars and rooms for family chants, introduce new types of religious ceremonies, make pilgrimages to India and even Tibet, buy scriptures and organize more family events" ^{[21, p. 62]}.

Let's pay attention to several original holidays. For example, the so-called "Exorcism Festival" (Chinese: , pinyin: q? gu? ji?), associated with the expulsion of evil spirits and demons. "This holiday and its underlying rite is held twice a year, in April and October according to the Gregorian calendar, and is organized by "la wa" — (Chinese: , pinyin: l? w?) by an elected representative of the villagers responsible for organizing religious activities. The event begins with a collective exorcism ceremony “Chirim” (Chinese: , pinyin: q? L? m?) in the village temple, which is conducted by two lamas and is aimed at exorcising demons threatening the village. After that, a celebration is held, in which all the villagers participate, dividing the costs of the holiday among themselves. On the night after the holiday, each family lights torches and walks around every room of their home, making the sounds of "Ao-Ao-Ao" to expel evil spirits living in the house" ^{[14, p. 169]}.

The "Day of Atonement" (Chinese: , pinyin: sh? zu? ji?) is held for three days in late May - early June according to the Gregorian calendar. His goal is to "wash away" sins and improve the morality of society. "The atonement ceremony takes place in the temple and is organized by three "la wa" (Chinese: , pinyin: l? w?) — elected representatives of the villagers responsible for organizing religious activities. All other expenses, except for the butter from yak milk used to light the lamps and the food of the presiding lama, are borne by the villagers. On the morning of the first day, people gather in the temple and take seats in order of seniority: women and the poor — in the central aisle or in the last rows, and people with status — in the right corner of the altar. Monks recite sutras before dark, during which time one or two breaks are made. The next morning, the participants of the atonement should walk barefoot around the mound of Mani and the temple, the more circles, the deeper the accumulation of merit and the greater the purification from sins. After going around, you need to listen to a lama explaining the origin of the feast of atonement, a lama reading prayers, listen to the holy scriptures in order to bow repeatedly, be sure to bow ninety or more times. The next day comes the day of fasting, the time of which lasts a day, during this period it is not allowed to eat and go home. On the third day, alms are distributed in the temple. After giving alms, the monks recite sutras to the accompaniment of musical instruments, and at this time the “la wa”, who organizes the celebration, makes a toast to the lama conducting the ceremony. Then the lama performs the “ablution” of all those present, i.e. sprinkles water on the heads of those who have come. At the end of the ablution, the ceremony is completed" ^{[14, p. 170]}.

The "Domce Holiday" (Chinese: , pinyin: du? m? z? ji?) connects the religious and everyday culture of the Sherpas. During the festival, both sacred religious events and events for the entertainment of people are held. The holiday is held in the month following the "Day of Atonement", but there is no specific date. "The holiday lasts six days or one or two days for those who cannot attend the entire period. Domce is a celebration of the reunion of the villagers, which is organized and prepared by eight or nine “la va”, elected by the villagers. Expenses are distributed among the “la va” on a per capita basis. The "La va" change once a year, and the villagers take turns performing their duties. On this holiday, some activities are held in the temple, and the rest of the time the villagers are usually free. Monks and some artists also use this opportunity to show their talents to the people. During the six days of the festival, regardless of whether the la va family is rich or poor, it is necessary to bear the costs of the holiday on an equal basis with everyone, and all residents of the surrounding area at this time can enjoy the hospitality of La va. All villagers are equal in enjoying the hospitality of "la va", and are obliged to be as hospitable to others as "la va"" ^{[14, p. 170]}.

Manirindo (Chinese: ,, pinyin: M? n? l?n du?) is a religious dance festival held in a temple. His main goal is a prayer for blessing, purification. The holiday is held in villages, combining religion and entertainment.

"Qianmuya" (Chinese: , pinyin: qi?ng m? y?) is an ancient religious dance aimed at exorcising demons and spirits. "This is a dance art developed on the basis of sacrificial dances in Tibetan Buddhist monasteries. Scientists generally believe that the origin of Qianmu can be traced back to the middle of the XIII century AD" ^{[22, p. 66]}.

"Qianmuya" is also called a religious festival where this dance is performed — "... a dance festival that is held in the monastery for four days. At the festival, the lama mainly performs the “Qianmuya" dance. The villagers dress up to watch and pray for peace and happiness. Young men and women from the village will sing and dance until late at night. The atmosphere is especially cheerful and harmonious" ^{[15, p.20]}. The exact dates of this holiday are not defined and are set by individual villages independently as needed (Fig. 5).

Fig. 5. Qianmuya ( // ?URL: https://402843108.tuchong.com/32349245/#image462296658 )

"On the first day, the monks rehearse their performance in groups of six to the accompaniment of trumpets, cymbals, drums and tubas. At noon, villagers come to the temple with offerings of dried chili, wine and coins. At noon on the second day, festively dressed people with food, wine and offerings go to the temple. Elderly people, walking around the temple, turn prayer wheels to read the scriptures. And women rush to the doors of the temple to take part in the distribution of corn wine in advance as a blessing for those who came, as well as for their merits and their good reputation. When the villagers enter the temple, they first offer gifts to the receiving lama, and then go to another lama, who brings out a copper pot with “holy water” to purify the body of everyone who brings gifts. Those who have received “holy water” drink it reverently and wipe their wet palms on their heads. After purification, the lama also gives everyone to eat a "saving pill" made from "holy water", flour and spices, and a small spoonful of sugar water with saffron. On the third day, religious dances are performed in the temple, and after the performance, boys and girls sing and dance until late at night. On the fourth day, a religious ceremony is held, called “Siviginsa” (Chinese: ,, pinyin: x? w?i j?n s?). The content of religious rituals mainly includes the construction of an altar, the repetition of the scriptures and, finally, the burning of the altar and objects on the altar with fire" ^{[13, p. 344]}.

The unique religious holidays of the Sherpas are a very interesting phenomenon. Although most Sherpas believe in Tibetan Buddhism, the peculiarities of Tibetan Buddhism are not fully reflected in their unique religious holidays.

Tibetan religious festivals such as the Great prayer festival (chin.: , Pinyin: chu?n zh?o f? d? hu?), the Festival of lights (chin.: , Pinyin: d?ng ji? r?n) and the Feast of Sahadeva (chin.: , Pinyin: s? w? g? d? ji?) is associated with important events and famous figures of Buddhism. Tibetan religious holidays have fixed dates. On the contrary, the Sherpas are strongly influenced by folk beliefs, which is part of the unique cultural tradition of the Sherpas, and their holidays do not have a fixed date.

The religious holidays of the Sherpas demonstrate a strong influence of pagan folk beliefs, and at the same time demonstrate a combination of sacred and secular entertainment, which is similar to the Tibetan festival of Shoton. It should be noted that Tibetan holidays, such as the Shoton holidays and the Tibetan New Year, have now turned from traditional holidays into modern festivals, while Sherpas still retain their traditional holidays due to the small population and for other reasons.

Conclusions

Let's highlight the key characteristics of Sherpa holidays in comparison with other nationalities inhabiting Tibet.

1. A large number of local holidays is a common feature of almost every ethnic minority in Tibet. On the example of Sherpas, their main causes of occurrence and the functions that they perform are clearly traced: 1) religious beliefs: the Sherpas' reverence for nature has gradually developed into primitive religious beliefs, which are reflected in their religious holidays; 2) production methods: the habitat of the Sherpas determines their production methods based on agriculture. Cattle play an important role in primitive agricultural production. There are many agricultural holidays of Sherpas, most of which are associated with cattle breeding; 3) collectivism: the number of Sherpas is small, and the habitat is closed. Holidays are an important occasion for everyone to gather and socialize, which, in turn, contributes to the development of the holidays themselves.

2.                  According to the main content, Sherpa holidays can be divided into three types: agricultural, religious and New Year, which, due to its significance, can be defined into a separate group. Note that this division is not absolute. Many of the meaningful aspects of the holidays affect each other. For example, there are obvious religious rituals in the celebration of the New Year and agricultural holidays of the Sherpas. In this moment there are general similarities with Tibetan and other holidays of small ethnic groups inhabiting Tibet. The penetration of religion into all spheres of life of ethnic groups is a characteristic feature for all nationalities.

3. Traditional Sherpa holidays are significantly influenced by religious practices and rituals. An interesting point is that, although the Sherpas profess Tibetan Buddhism, their religious holidays largely reflect the original religious beliefs of their own people. This is in sharp contrast to the religious holidays of Tibetans, for whom Tibetan Buddhism is the main religion, their religious holidays are directly related to important days in Buddhism.

4. Among the Sherpas, lamas and villagers jointly organize religious holidays. This reflects the sense of equality of the Sherpas and promotes unity between them, which is very rare in religious holidays of other ethnic minorities, for example among Tibetans, where lamas are their absolute leaders.

5. In the religious activity of the Sherpas, the Temple is not an absolute center. Many events are held in an open space on the territory of the village. For Tibetans and other ethnic groups, the Temple is the absolute center of religious activity.

6. Sherpa holidays are a combination of religion and secularism. At the same time, serious religious rituals, for example, sacrifices, and entertainment events coexist. If we take as an example the Tibetan holiday-the Shoton Festival, then it has turned from a purely religious event into a large-scale celebration of religion and recreation. A similar situation is observed in other religious holidays of Tibetans and holidays of other ethnic minorities.

7. Cattle and sheep occupy an important place and are the center of agricultural holidays of Sherpas. Such a tradition is very rare in agricultural holidays of other ethnic minorities. It shows the importance of animal husbandry in Sherpa agriculture and the place of animals in the life of rural residents.

8. The influence of the outside world on Sherpas is very great, which mainly affects the tradition of celebrating the New Year. So, for more than half a century, the time of celebration of this holiday has changed several times. It can be assumed that this is mainly due to the small population of Sherpas and the impact of external cultural and political factors on them. It is worth noting that the Sherpas, in turn, have no influence on the Tibetans living in the surrounding areas.

Thus, the study of the holidays and the festive culture of the Sherpas showed that, along with the influence of external cultural factors, the Sherpas still retain a significant traditional layer of their local culture. Thus, the New Year is more influenced by external factors and changes in time and customs, while agricultural and religious holidays preserve traditional customs. Among the agricultural and religious festivals, one can see the manifestation of the folk beliefs of the Sherpas. Chinese Sherpas, being a very small ethnic group, are becoming an important subject of study, as is the protection of their cultural heritage, and holidays and festivals, as vivid indicators of their traditional culture, are even more valuable for research.