Taoist music of China in the context of the religious practice of Taoism

Yan Peifan Lecturer, Music Department, Cangzhou Normal University 061000, China, Hebei Province, Cangzhou, Guofengnan str., 16 rusyangpeifan@126.com Other publications by this author

The relevance of the appeal to the Taoist music of China is determined by two growing trends. The first of them is its return to the legal sound space of the country after a ten-year ban during the Cultural revolution. Since 1988, professional Taoist orchestras and ensembles have been created. The first was the "Orchestra of the Temple of White Clouds" created in Beijing in 1988. It was followed by the Hong Kong Taoist Orchestra (1996), the Tianjin Taoist Orchestra (2003), the Shanghai Taoist Orchestra of the Temple of God (2003), the Taoist Orchestra of the Temple of God of Xi'an Province (2005), and then many other ensembles.  They participate in large-scale festivals of Taoist culture, perform outside of China, record audio albums and distribute their creativity via the Internet. In 1990, the "First Week of Taoist Music" was held in Beijing, organized by the Ministry of Culture, the Committee on Religious Affairs and the Institute of Art Studies of the People's Republic of China. In 2008, Taoist music was included in the list of intangible cultural heritage of China. Currently, the collection and systematization of regional musical material has been established. Taoist cultural centers located in different provinces of the country are involved in this work.

The second trend is determined by the increasingly noticeable influence of Taoism on the work of the world's leading composers. In the XX century, John Cage and Isan Yun became the pioneers of this direction. Tan Dun (), Zhou Lun (), Chen Yi (), as well as many young musicians have followed in their footsteps in the XXI century.

According to these trends, research interest in Taoist music is growing. However, in Russia, this growth has not yet led to tangible scientific results. Only two articles are fully devoted to this problem ^{[1; 2]}, another one is partially ^[3]. At the same time, modern Russian–language studies of Taoism and traditional Chinese culture contain many references to Taoist music - from contextual references to more or less detailed references. In recent years, materials have also begun to appear on the influence of Taoist ideas on the work of modern composers ^[4]. Thus, the degree of research of the topic by Russian music science is still low.

In Chinese musicology, the situation is different. A significant amount of research has been devoted to Taoist music. According to the scientist Liu Hong, only from 1957 to 2008, 290 scientific papers (books and articles) were published, of which 274 were in mainland China, and 16 in other countries ^{[5, p. 64]}. Even before the Cultural Revolution, considerable field material was collected, and the Taoist music of several regions was described. In the 1980s, the directions of scientific search that are still relevant today were formed: collection, systematization and notation of musical sources; research of the history and genres of local traditions, as well as analysis of specific works.

The history of Taoist music consists of five periods.

1. The preparatory period (XI century BC – I century AD) precedes the formation of Taoism as a religion. There is a primary selection of instruments, traditional melodies and forms of music-making that accompany both the rituals of the Taoists themselves and magical folk rituals. As Long Huayun notes: "the origins of Taoist music lie in shamanic songs and dances of primitive society" ^{[6, p. 28]}.

2. The early period (II – VI centuries) coincides with the emergence and development of the religion of Taoism. The musical part of the Taoist sacred practice is being formed. According to the Chronicle of the Wei Dynasties, in 415, the influential reformer of Taoism, Kou Qianzhi, met with the Supreme Venerable Lord Lao at the sacred Mount Songshan, gave him "Heavenly Commandments chanted", and also formulated a way of voicing them. According to this method, the texts "Praising China" and "Steps in the Void" were musically performed, which became the first examples of Taoist liturgical music ^[7]. 

        3. The mature period (VII – XVII centuries). The instrumentation is expanding: strings and woodwinds are added to the voice and percussion; Taoist music sounds in the palaces of emperors; the first studies appear; an education system is being formed. In particular, the Sung Emperor Huizong at the beginning of the XII century ordered to teach Taoist music to all Taoist monks of the country ^{[3, p. 111]}. Her influence extends far beyond the temples: she is mentioned in many poems of the Tang and Song eras, and is gaining great popularity among the people. The corpus of Taoist melodies is actively replenished with folk and even Buddhist and Arabic melodies; music collections are being compiled. The very first was the collection "Precious Words about Worship" () compiled in the era of the Northern Song Dynasty, containing 50 chants recorded in the notation of quyanpu ()). In the era of the Yuan Dynasty, two musical styles were formed, corresponding to the main schools of Taoism Quanzhen and Zhengyi. During the Ming Dynasty, the liturgical musical repertoire of Taoist temples was detailed and standardized.

4. The late period (XVIII century – 1970s). In the Qing era, Taoist music is replenished with many regional traditions by adapting local folklore melodies. There is also a secularization of Taoist music, its release "into the world". In the XX century, due to the persecution of supporters of Taoism, as well as large-scale social upheavals, Chinese Taoist music was in decline until the end of the Cultural Revolution.

5. The modern period (since the 1980s) is characterized by the return of public and state interest in Taoist music. Comprehensive measures are being taken to preserve and popularize it.

Turning to the characteristics of Taoist music, we will make a few preliminary remarks. The first of them relates to the toolkit. It is based on an ensemble of obligatory ritual instruments: muyu wooden block, Ling table bell, cha and dan plates, zhonggu drum, Dizi and Xiao flutes, Sheng mouth organ. The priority of percussion and wind instruments is rooted in Taoist beliefs, according to which the gods preferred these timbres ^{[1, p. 746]}. Depending on the scale of the Taoist temple and the type of worship, this series is supplemented with traditional instruments. These are string-bowed erhu and jinghu, string-plucked ruan, yangqin, pipa and sanxian, wind son. The string-plucked qin instrument, widely used in individual Taoist practices, deserves special mention. As the researchers note: "Playing the qin with its special timbre perfectly answered the tasks of regulating the relationship between Heaven and Earth, the contact of ancestral spirits with living people. It was considered by them as a means of spiritual emancipation, the acquisition of harmony with the surrounding world" ^{[8, p. 46]}.

The second remark concerns the designation of forms of music-making. Taoist music does not have the usual division for Europeans into vocal, instrumental and vocal-instrumental. Any vocal performance is called yunzi ( – "child of melodious sounds"), and any playing on an instrument is called paizi ( – "chant"). Thus, Yunzi and paizi can accompany the Taoist ceremony separately or together.

Exploring the musical design of Taoist worship services, one should pay attention to two levels of interaction between music and ritual. They differ in the degree of its subordination to religious content.

On the inner level, music accompanies the collective prayer of the monks, read during the morning or evening prayer service. In this case, the instrumental ensemble duplicates the vocal melody in unison. The music is characterized by grandeur, regularity, which is emphasized by rhythmic beats of drums and percussion. Tempo changes, the number of drum beats, the movement of the melodic line, etc. are verified. The complete absence of instrumental interludes that can disrupt prayer concentration is characteristic. Thus, drums and percussion regulate the flow of prayer in time, and other instruments amplify the voices of the monks.

Also, music accompanies the sermon of the Taoist priest, that is, complements the scene of the merging of the cosmic and human worlds. This ceremony is characterized by a more lively character, thanks to which musical instruments act freely. Percussion and percussion not only count the meter, but also color the metric canvas with more or less whimsical rhythmic patterns. Melodic instruments duplicate the chant performed by the priest, as well as shade it with undertones and fill in the pauses. If the sermon consists of several parts, the tutti of the ensemble indicates their change. In the sequence of musical fragments, a peculiar dramaturgy of increasing volume and accelerating tempo can be traced.

Music of the second, external level accompanies Taoist rituals conducted outside the temple. One of such rituals – hojiudao ( – "The Tao of fiery Life") is a large-scale action of traditional culture, common in the villages of southern China. Along with singing, hojiudao includes processions, dancing, fireworks, lighting candles and water lanterns. The music of such ceremonies, on the one hand, indirectly correlates with the doctrine of Taoism, since it weakly reveals the meaning of Taoist verses. On the other hand, the musical arrangement of hojiudao is as close as possible to the folklore tradition, as if returning to it. Such rituals help many people who are not ready to observe all the rules and commandments necessary for prayer practice to join Taoism.

The genre appearance of religious music is determined by the internal or external type of Taoist ritual. Internal rituals are divine services performed within the walls of a Taoist temple: liturgy, ordination to the priesthood, a meeting on the occasion of the deity's birthday, etc. External rituals are private events performed at the walls of the temple or in the abbot's house. These include rituals (exorcism of evil spirits, worship of lower deities, funeral rite, prayer service or sermon), as well as healing, divination or spiritualism ^{[9, pp. 203-205]}.

At the internal, temple rituals, yang verses are vocalized (sung, chanted, pronounced) ( – "male rhymes"). Their addressees are heavenly gods, earth spirits and other transcendent entities. Yang's vocal verses correspond to a genre variety of instrumental music called zhengqiu ( - –main music"). It has a strong religious expression and, like Yang's poems, is intended to be performed specifically for the gods.

The most famous example of Taoist temple music is the chant "Steps in the Void" (""), one of the most significant in the liturgical sense. Its name means the highest goal of the Taoist – spiritual movement to the state of emptiness. Emptiness in the Taoist creed is not the absence of anything, but the detachment of consciousness, in which only the comprehension of Tao is possible. Tao, in turn, is an inactive "absence/non-existence" that gives rise to heaven and earth. At the same time, the tao is the beyond, generating all things "existence/being" ^{[10, pp. 230-231]}, therefore, the concepts of "emptiness" and "Tao" in Taoism are closely intertwined. In addition, emptiness symbolizes the infinity of space in which the heavenly gods dwell. It is synonymous with absolute purity, untainted by anything mundane. Thus, the footsteps in the void are the footsteps of the gods, which the Taoist must hear. Singing the melody "Steps in the Void" expresses hope for the realization of the Tao, and serves as a kind of material preparation for its comprehension.

The origin of the chant "Steps in the Void" is described in the book "The Garden of Miracles" ("") by the writer Liu Jingshu, who lived in the V century: "The ruler Chen Xi was taking a walk in the mountains, and suddenly heard a clear (literally – "void" ?) sound of the chant, and recorded it, realizing that it was the singing of the immortals. Taoist priests followed his example and called the chant "Steps in the Void" ^{[11, p. 20]}. Researchers question the authenticity of this story on the grounds that different tunes have been fixed under this name in the musical usage of different schools of Taoism. Existing today in a variety of melodic variants, the chant "Steps in the Void" remains very significant for all Taoist schools. He voices the ritual of the "Circling of the Heavenly Venerable", during which the Taoists sing around the altar, forming a symbol of the Great Limit. In addition, the text of the "Steps" is read in Taoist temples at the beginning of each evening service. Liu Hong gives the following version of it ^{[11, pp. 20-21]}.

Fig. 1. "Steps in the void".

At open rituals outside the temple, such as a charity ceremony or food distribution, yin poems ( – "female rhymes") are sung, mainly. They are addressed to all Taoists. The musical basis of yin poems is often the melodies of local folklore adapted to the structure of the verse stanza. The instrumental music of shatsui ( – "game music") corresponds to the verses of yin. It is also based on borrowed and modified melodies of folk tunes. Compared to zhengqiu, shaqiu's music has a more lively character, its melodies are less melodious. The shaqiu does not reveal the nature of the Taoist creed, and therefore the Taoists themselves consider it secondary. Nevertheless, before and during many Taoist rituals held outside the temple, such instrumental music is played. The most popular melodies are "Eternal Joy" (""), "Sichuan Tune" (""), "Snowflakes in the Wind" (""").

Fig. 2. "Eternal joy".

Let's move on to the characteristics of the types of vocal intonation of Taoist prayers. In the religious practice of Taoism, four varieties are used.

1. Chant. In this way, most of the verses of internal rituals are voiced. This type of singing is distinguished by delicacy, melodiousness and lyrical expressiveness. It generates the most beautiful yunzi melodies, which can be called without exaggeration the essence of Taoist music. These tunes sound in the genres of verse (? – "rhyme"), glorification (? – "praise"), challenge (? – "pull, call") or hymn (? – "decisive").  These are, for example, "The Verse of enlightenment", "The Verse of the other world", "The Verse of sorrow", large, small and medium "Glorification", "The Call of the soul of the deceased", "The Call of rain", "The Call of deliverance of children from misfortune", "The Call of deliverance of the elderly from misfortune", large, small and the military "Anthem", and many other melodies. Usually, the chant is accompanied by playing ritual instruments – wind organs and flutes: they have a unique timbre characteristic of Taoist celestial music (Daojia xianyue).

Fig. 3. "The verse of enlightenment".

2. Chanting. In this case, phrases of 4-9 words generate the corresponding intonation patterns. This manner of performance involves small vocal ups and downs, between which the melody "hangs" at the same height, demonstrating the similarity of recitation, and not actually singing or reading. The chant is embodied, for example, in the melody of the veneration of the gods and saints, "The Precious Instruction of Heaven." Taoists sing it at every morning and evening service. The melody of "Precious Instruction" is laconic, does not contain rhythmic variation and melodic chants, the points of chanting are clearly adjusted relative to each other.

Fig. 4. "The precious instruction of Heaven".

3. Recitation. In Taoism, this method of voicing the text is used when reciting mantras. It consists in repeated repetitions of a small motif on the principle of "one word – one sound". For its extreme melodic simplicity, some Taoists call this method "ban-ban-ching".

Fig. 5. "The Mantra of the Golden Light".

4. Vocalized speech. Not being, in the strict sense, singing, this method consists in singing the text, which is facilitated by the tonal nature of the Chinese language. With an intonation pattern, such vocalization vaguely resembles chanting, which sounds in some local traditions of Chinese musical theater. Vocalization of speech is used exclusively in external rituals, such as "The Example of ancestors", "Food donation" and "Charitable assistance".

The main feature of Taoist music should probably be considered proximity to folklore. Although the music of Taoism belongs to the category of "religious", it is firmly rooted in the folk tradition. The whole history of Taoism, which arose and developed in opposition to Confucianism as a "folk religion", testifies to this.

The modern panorama of Taoist music also speaks of a great folklore influence. Thus, the music of the temple "Abode of the Hidden" () in the city of Suzhou echoes the music for wind instruments in the south of Jiangsu province. The Taoist music of Shanghai was strongly influenced by the string and wind music of the right bank of the Yangtze. The Taoist music of Jiulu County in Hebei is close to the Hebei melodies for chuige wind instruments (), and the music of the Xi'an "Temple of God" () is similar to the drum music of Xi'an Province ^{[6, p. 29]}.

Moreover, folklore influences are found in the strictest parts of Taoist rituals, for example, accompanied by prayer services. The testimony of Liu Hong, who talked with the abbot of the "Temple of the Purple Sky" on Mount Wudangshan, is indicative: "I asked him if the melodies of the verses they sing contain any folk intonations. Abbot La replied, “We don't sing that. What we do is transmitted to us from our Teacher.” In the course of a desk analysis of the verses of morning and evening prayers, we found few exact coincidences between folk songs and Taoist verses. <...> But it is still obvious that some of the melodies of the prayer services are similar to local folklore tunes" ^{[12, p. 42]}.

So, the musical traditions of Taoism are formed in the depths of its religious practice. Ceremonial music is closely related to the type of worship: temple rituals in Taoist monasteries, aimed at creating a prayer concentration, are markedly different from the spectacular worship outside the walls of the temple for laypeople. Going out into the folk environment determines the proximity of such rituals of folklore tradition. The type of ceremony strictly determines the system of genres and types of vocal intonation. In the process of centuries-old evolution, ritual instruments (mainly brass and percussion) and a stable circle of canonical prayers are being formed, the manner of voicing of which is determined by the text. Summing up the results of the study, we note that if the external appearance of Taoist music is due to its proximity to folklore origins, then its internal content is primarily related to the attitudes of the Taoist creed. Both of these aspects can be the subject of further study.