Aristotle's "Catharsis" as an Inspiration for Modern Drama Therapy

Tszin' Chenyuan Postgraduate Student, Department of Art History, St. Petersburg State University 199034, Russia, Saint Petersburg, Universitetskaya str., 7/9 chenyuan0328@126.com Other publications by this author

In the era of Ancient Greece, a theatrical performance, in which a religious ritual was present as a key element, had, along with an educational effect on the viewer, a psychotherapeutic effect. During the Athenian bacchanalia and the ceremonies of the Great and Small Dionysias, theatrical performances turned into an instrument of collective healing. The dramatic "catharsis", named and analyzed in the theoretical system of Aristotle, in turn, became a theoretical generalization of the healing abilities of the Greek theater.

The scientific novelty of this work is that the study of the essence and form of healing in the Greek theater can be used as a theoretical basis for the development of modern drama therapy. The work uses an interdisciplinary approach, a cultural-historical method and the principle of comparative analysis.

In the IV century BC, when the Greek theater was at the end of its golden age, Aristotle gave a theoretical generalization of theatrical art and formulated the theory of "catharsis" in ancient Greek tragedy. The concept of "catharsis" (catharsis) comes from the Greek word katharsis, which has different meanings in the context of different scientific disciplines. In ancient Greek medicine, it meant "release" (purgation) and often had to do with "medicines for cleansing the intestines" ^[1]. According to T. J. Scheff, Hippocrates was the first to turn to catharsis in medical practice ^[2]. Within the framework of the religious traditions of the Hellenistic period (323-31 BC), the term acquired the meaning of "purgatory" (cleanse) and was often used at religious ceremonies for the purification of such a sin as murder ^[3].

In the terminology of ethical teachings, catharsis meant "purification" and, according to Plato, acted as a cleansing agent, removing all unworthy components from the soul and preserving virtues ^[4].

Behind all these values is the idea of metamorphosis – the transition from an unstable state to a balanced one. Understanding such an idea helps to explore the healing essence of theatrical performances, since healing itself implies leaving an unbalanced painful state.

Having defined "catharsis" as the main purpose of tragedy, Aristotle clearly demonstrated the essence of healing in the theatrical art. Why the philosopher paid such close attention to the function of "catharsis" is revealed here the desire to preserve the traditional healing function of the theater. The close relationship between theatrical art and healing can be traced back to the times of the ancient Greek theater and is rooted in the ritual origins of theatrical performances. In Aristotle's Poetics, it says: "And, as you know, she herself [tragedy] and comedy arose from improvisations. One originates from the singing of praises, the other – from the singing of phallic songs, which still remain in the custom in many cities" ^[5]. The tragedy, which was born from the dithyrambs characteristic of the Greek cult of Dionysus, did not move away from its origins, but retained its original ritual purpose. Sophocles' Oedipus Rex is one of the most striking examples of healing in theatrical art: the central element of the tragedy is the pestilence, the description of which is found already in the first stanzas of the play and indicates that disaster is the inexorable punishment of heaven for human atrocities. Purification from sin and a terrible disease becomes possible only after the criminal who committed two serious crimes – the murder of his father and marriage with his mother - has been found and punished. As you know, King Oedipus, who discovered as a result of his own careful research that he is this criminal, who did not act intentionally, but blindly, appoints and carries out punishment himself: as if in response to blind Fate, gouges out his eyes and expels himself from the city. At the same time, the plague vividly depicted in the tragedy was by no means a figment of Sophocles' artistic imagination: "probably, the description of the pestilence is a reflection of the epidemic that struck Athens in 429 and 430 BC" ^[6].

The Athenian plague had a tremendous psychological impact on the residents of the city, so the appearance of such a play after the end of the epidemic pursued not only aesthetic or, moreover, entertainment goals. According to the French historian Jean-Pierre Vernand, the tragedy of Oedipus the king could be based on the image of a "scapegoat" used in sacrificial rituals aimed at preventing disasters^[7].

Thus, moving the story of King Oedipus into a sacred ritual context allowed us to reveal the healing function of the play. In the viewers of that time, the return to the experienced epidemic caused a spiritual thrill and helped to give an outlet to the accumulated experiences and memories. As the wounds healed, hope gradually revived, and people shed the oppression of difficulties, rising to new heights of spirit, because they realized the connection of diseases and disasters with sinful actions and sought to avoid sin or be cleansed from it. Born from the praises proclaimed during the bacchanalia, tragedies turned into the main means reflecting the fight against the disease and the prevention of new adversities, as well as serving moral rehabilitation as "rehabilitation after trauma".

The ancient Greeks, who closely linked the manifestations of diseases and healing with the supernatural, believed that deities – including the god of winemaking Dionysus – had the power to cause and treat ailments. Anthropologist Peng Zhaozhong noted the following: "in ancient legends and rituals there are traces of the narrative of pathological processes that are also present in the culture and rituals associated with Dionysus, where ideas about diseases are revealed through fantasy and metaphorical narration, and fear of illness turns into worship of higher powers" ^[8]. The story of Dionysus itself causes awe and is an allegory of human fear of illness and death: according to legend, immediately after his birth Dionysus was torn to shreds and eaten by titans – only his heart was saved, thanks to which God was able to resurrect, symbolizing, thus, the deliverance of people from the hardships that befell them. But this can only happen if their hearts are alive.

Greek playwrights often turned to the story of a hero struggling with difficulties and with Fate. Although such a model could take a variety of forms, its core remained unchanged. Such stories were often built around the theme of death and the subsequent resurrection of the soul and physical nature, passing through purification along the path of renewal. As Nietzsche wrote, "it can be argued that never, until Euripides, did Dionysus cease to remain a tragic hero, but that all the famous figures of the Greek stage – Prometheus, Oedipus, etc. – are only masks of this original hero Dionysus" ^[9].

Based on this position, theatrical performances during bacchanals have the power of social healing, being aimed at facilitating and eliminating the difficulties that society faces in the process of its transformation. The theater helps to maintain physical and mental balance, as well as the stability of the social order. According to theater critic Robin Mitchell-Boyask, "the ritual, healing and political components of the ancient Greek theater were interpenetrating ... for this reason, theatrical performances could serve as a political vaccine within the polis, performing the same magical cleansing functions as the Pharmacon"^[10].

Religious purification is the very first meaning of "catharsis", stemming from religious rituals aimed at maintaining purity of body and spirit in order to avoid divine wrath. The first element of the healing ritual in the name of the god of medicine was precisely the purification from sin. Theatrical performances during the bacchanalia also had a touch of cleansing ceremonies held to prevent disasters.

In Greece, which was in a state of fragmentation, starting from the VI century BC, opposite principles coexisted and permeated each other – religious mysticism and rationalism, the synthesis of which opened up new ways of thinking for the Greeks. The orphic mysteries, built around the idea of purification, supplemented the basis of pre-existing rituals with the spirit of rationalism, forming a new ordered ceremonial. A new spirit penetrated into the Greek tragedies, revealing the divine-rationalistic essence of catharsis. For example, Oedipus' decision to save the polis through his own exile at first glance seems to be an impulsive act, but in reality it has a completely reasonable justification. Watching such a drama promotes spiritual purification and elevation.

At the same time, with the development of medicine, the vivid religious meaning of catharsis was supplemented by more secular meanings of "instruction" and "release". Hippocrates, who in his youth was a servant of the cult of Asclepius – the god of medicine – and is considered the father of modern European medical art, began to consider the causes of diseases and the meaning of "catharsis" through the prism of secular medicine. According to Hippocrates, diseases were not a punishment from higher powers, but arose for physiological reasons ^[11]. This view of the nature of physical ailments reflected people's confidence that diseases can be cured only with the help of medicine, without the participation of a moral factor. As for "catharsis", Hippocrates believed that the excess content of various substances inside the body contributes to the appearance of diseases that can be cured precisely through "catharsis" – liberation from the excess accumulated in the body ^[12].

In the ritual practice in honor of Asclepius, healing in a dream played an important role, when the sick received medicine or surgical help in their dreams. For example, one patient dreamed that the god-healer gave him a special ointment for earache, and when he received this medicine after waking up, the pain actually disappeared ^[13]. Another patient, whose body was hit by a leech, saw in a dream how Asclepius performed an operation on him; waking up, the patient found a leech next to him and felt that his illness had passed ^[14]. Another transformation that took place in the field of medicine was that a single person became the object of healing instead of a group of people. And the fanatical ritual dances were replaced by quiet healing in a dream. Now the patient, like a spectator in the theater, did not actively participate in the healing process, but passively accepted treatment from the god-healer – such a change in outlook reflected a departure from traditional group healing rituals and embodied the development of secular rational consciousness. The theater, erected next to the temple of Asclepius, continued to be a part of healing: now its role was not to serve as a place for theatrical religious healing rituals, but to conduct secular performances that help to ease the well-being of patients, strengthen their vitality and promote full recovery.

Speaking of "catharsis" in Greek tragedy, Aristotle most likely meant both religious and secular meaning of the term. Coming from a family of doctors and living in an era when the cult of Asclepius reached its peak, Aristotle in his writings often used "catharsis" to describe liberation from pathological phenomena in the field of psychology. In the treatise "Politics", the philosopher used this term to describe the functions of music. "As soon as people experiencing sacred fanaticism hear religious music, they lose their heads, and when they calm down, they feel healed and cleansed (past catharsis). The same is true for people experiencing regret, fear or other similar emotions"^[15]. Here, "catharsis" carries a connotation not only of spiritual purification, but also of purification in the medical sense, metaphorically describing the role of art as a means for psychological healing.

This understanding of musical "catharsis" is also applicable to the theater. Aristotle's conception of tragedy as an action "purifying such feelings through compassion and fear" ^[16] indicates that the philosopher considered tragedy capable of evoking such strong emotions as empathy and fear, and at the same time freeing people from these feelings, contributing to spiritual purification. Thus, Aristotle's theory of the function of drama is based on the theatrical therapeutic practices of Ancient Greece, preserving the religious component and supplementing it with secular content. Having defined "catharsis" as the main purpose of tragedy, Aristotle brought to the fore the healing function of the Greek theater.

In the study of the influence of the Greek traditions of theater therapy on modern theater, "catharsis" remains a central topic for further study. Modern theater critic Augusto Boal in his work "Rainbow of Desires" writes about four types of "catharsis": catharsis in the medical sense of the term, catharsis in the interpretation of Aristotle, catharsis on the model of Jacob Moreno and catharsis in the Theater of the Oppressed. Boal notes: "Regardless of which category catharsis belongs to, it always carries a semantic connotation of purification, liberation. There is one thing in common between the various forms: elements for individual or group purification, or for purification from that which disturbs the inner balance. As for the phenomenon of catharsis, its various manifestations are united by the idea of purification from the elements that disturb the balance. The differences are caused by the heterogeneity of the nature of the elements being purified or released" ^[17].

According to Boal, regardless of what changes the term "catharsis" undergoes, its central idea never significantly departs from the earliest meanings – purification and release – characteristic of the understanding of "catharsis" in the ancient Greek theater. Such a healing subtext of theatrical "catharsis" is much broader than the concept of "treatment" in the framework of modern medicine: "catharsis" has the ability not only to eliminate the symptoms of the disease, but also to influence the underlying causes of the disease and contribute to the metamorphosis of all life attitudes.

Modern people who are in conditions of a lack of spiritual beliefs, surrounded by instrumental rationality and under the domination of external power, often feel trapped and spiritually devastated. The theater is not able to have the same mystical healing effect as ritual ceremonies, but it retains the energy of ancient psychology, filling secular life with divine meaning and providing people with spiritual shelter. The healing subtext of the theatrical "catharsis" reminds us of the importance of holistic care for the health of the body and soul, transfers individual difficulties into a broader context, allowing us to feel a close connection of ourselves as a person with the rest of the world and thus revealing opportunities for self-healing. At the final stage of drama therapy, the viewer's thoughts and experiences gradually calm down, and he begins to draw parallels between his own life and the fate of the dramatic hero ^[18]. As the degree of identification with tragic heroes increases, people come to realize that "fate can break great people, but it cannot break human greatness"^[19]. 

The revival of interest in the healing abilities of theatrical "catharsis" is due to the needs of modern spiritual life. The theater gradually moved from the plane of irrational ritual healing to the aesthetic plane, which limited its healing abilities. Religion, medicine and art were separated by an insurmountable wall: ritual sanctity went to religion, healing – to medicine, and the theater remained aesthetic and entertainment functions. This separation, characteristic of the modern Western system of human existence, has hidden the original cultural essence of the theater, depriving the modern viewer of the opportunity to discover the close connection between theater and healing. Excessive technification and instrumentalization of medicine in the XX century led to the fact that voices calling for a return to the origins of medical art began to sound louder and louder. Deep psychology, the beginning of which was laid by Freud and Jung, helped people to return to dreams and to the area of their subconscious to relieve psychoneurotic symptoms and treat mental illnesses, which resembles a return to ancient Greek healing in a dream.

Pioneers of modern drama therapy, such as Jacob Moreno, also tried to use theater as part of psychotherapy, developing an interdisciplinary synthesis of art and healing. According to Richard Levine, "relying on the positive emotions of the audience in relation to the characters, catharsis renews and enhances the receptivity of the audience"^[20].

In the 70s and 80s of the twentieth century, dramatherapy began to be studied as a separate discipline that awakened creativity and imagination, promoted the reunification of people with their inner world, removed the burden of difficult experiences, changed behavior and life circumstances, thus revealing the healing abilities of theatrical "catharsis". The heyday of modern theater therapy reflects a new direction in the development of psychotherapy and theater, as well as a return to the ancient traditions of healing and artistic creativity and the development of fresh ideas and new creative ideas based on them.