Lexico-semantic features of metaphors in Russian and Chinese food culture on the example of the word "bread"

Tszya Junwen Postgraduate student, Department of Foreign Languages in Theory and Practice, Peoples' Friendship University of Russia 117198, Russia, Moscow region, Moscow, Miklukho-Maklaya str., 6 verajourney01@163.com Other publications by this author

Introduction

Food is a fundamental area of culture that partially shapes our understanding of the world. The peculiarities of nutrition have a significant impact on both physiology and human psychology ^{[10, p. 89]}.

In addition, gastronomy reflects the cultural characteristics of people and society ^[11]. Phraseological units are linguistic units consisting of two or more words that are fixed by their meaning, composition and structure ^{[7, p. 76]}. Cultural and national flavor is manifested in phraseological units ^{[9, p. 82]}, therefore, national features are also preserved in gastronomic phraseological units.

The relevance of the research topic is due to the widespread use of lexical units and phraseological units with the semantics of "food" in exchanges between Russia and China. The gastronomic culture of the two countries has a long history, which is reflected in the gastronomic vocabulary and phraseology. In order to promote cultural exchange between these two countries, the study of expressions related to the concept of "gastronomy" is necessary and indispensable.

The study of metaphorical language combines cognitive, linguistic and cultural aspects. Numerous studies on metaphor and language are conducted in Russia, the scientists of which are V.G. Gak, N.D. Arutyunova, B.H. Telia and others. Outside of Russia, there is also a wide range of literature on this topic, the research of which is carried out by such scientists as G. Lakoff and M. Johnson, Z. Kovechesh, R. V. Gibbs, Yu. Nin and others.

Metaphor is not only a rhetorical device, but also a cognitive mode ^{[5, p. 1]}. According to Lakoff, conceptual metaphors can be divided into three categories: structural metaphors, orientation metaphors and ontological metaphors ^{[5, p.1]}. Of particular importance is the recognition of significant differences in vocabulary and phraseological units in terms of metaphorical meaning in the context of semantics and culture. However, the meaning of lexical units associated with the same metaphor may differ between two peoples due to cultural differences, which may lead to the use of different objects as pointers. Therefore, it is necessary to analyze the differences in the vocabulary related to nutrition between the two peoples. However, most studies focus on the analysis of equivalents of metaphorical vocabulary in English, while rare studies have been conducted on the analysis of equivalents between Chinese and Russian, especially those with a cultural connotation.

Russian Russian and Chinese languages In order to achieve this research goal, it is necessary to solve the following tasks: first of all, to determine the meaning of the word "bread" in Russian and Chinese, as well as to identify metaphorical uses of this word in Russian and Chinese. Secondly, to analyze the metaphorical phraseological units containing the word "bread" in both Russian and Chinese. Thirdly, to analyze expressions in Chinese phraseological units that have the same conceptual metaphors as Russian phraseological units with the word "bread".

In this article, the following research methods were used: by searching for the keyword "bread" in the main buildings of China (BLCU Corpus Center, BCC) (http://bcc.blcu.edu.cn /) and Russia (National Corpus of the Russian Language) (https://ruscorpora.ru ) a new corpus of sentences containing the words "bread/面包mianbao" was compiled. A comparative analysis of differences in metaphors of the vocabulary "bread/mianbao", as well as metaphorical phraseological units related to the semantics of the word "bread" in Chinese and Russian was also carried out.

The significance of this research lies in the fact that it allows us to analyze macrocultural differences from the point of view of the microlevel of cognitive perspective, using vocabulary and phraseological units related to gastronomic topics. The differences between the gastronomic cultures of Russia and China in the concept of “bread” were revealed, which contributes to a deeper understanding and effective communication between the two countries.

Discussion

"Equivalent words" refers to words in Chinese and Russian that have the same lexical meaning ^{[19, p.41]}. Equivalent words may be subject to symmetrical phenomena, but they can often undergo asymmetric changes under the influence of cultural factors. For example, although there is a term for “bread” in Chinese, this word is not symmetrical with respect to its equivalent in Russian, if we consider their use in the context of metaphorical expressions. Based on semantic equivalence between words, three types of equivalence can be distinguished: full, partial and non-equivalent ^{[21, p.184]}. The researchers conducted a study of various equivalent words based on different languages ^{[18, p.1]}. In addition, they studied equivalent phenomena of the same phenomenon or object ^{[17, p.84]}.

Studies show that lexemes with a low degree of equivalence are very difficult to learn ^{[1, p.299]} and translate ^[6]. An equivalent word cannot always be found in translation, especially when it comes to metaphors. The figurative meaning of vocabulary is closely related to metaphor and metonymy [Gak V.G. Comparative Lexicology. - M., 1977. – pp.109-137], and also deeply depends on the cultural context, which leads to difficulties in achieving an equivalent in translation. How to ensure the similarity of metaphorical expressions in two languages? There are many factors influencing differences in metaphors ^{[3, p.197]}, while one of the main factors is the cultural difference between languages. Conceptual metaphor is a common feature of human cognition based on the general perception of physical space and the similarity of perceptions and their classification [Arutyunova N. D. Language and the human world. - M.: Languages of Russian Culture. - 1999. – c.348]. However, due to the difference in cultural values, philosophies, social structures and other factors, differences and diversity in metaphors arise. The classification of metaphors starts from simple to more complex, from physical properties to historical scenarios. The analysis of the variety of metaphors should be based on the common knowledge of people: categorization. The steps of metaphor analysis differ from the steps of metaphor identification ^{[2, p.1]}, however, it is important to take into account the identification steps when analyzing lexical units with metaphorical meaning.

The structure of the analysis of metaphorical lexemes is presented in the following scheme: {metaphorical lexeme} ={[category]+[culture]}

Categorization is the basis of human cognition, the understanding and application of metonymy is also based on categorization, only with an emphasis on other aspects. A metaphor is a projection between two areas (categories), and a metonymy is a projection within one area (category). Categories include the physical meanings of generalizations based on people's shared perceptions. But due to differences in cultural values, social context and historical scenarios, individual differences arise in the definition of these categories.

This article examines the analysis of the concept of bread, one of the most common words in the Russian language, based on this formula. A comparative analysis of metaphorical concepts is also carried out, comparing the corresponding words and understanding of metaphors in the Chinese language.

The word "bread/面包" in Russian and Chinese

In the Chinese dictionary, the concept of "bread" is represented by two hieroglyphs: "面 mian" (flour: powder ground from grains, including wheat) and "包 bao" (baozi - steamed pies). In the Chinese language, there is no separate hieroglyph for the concept of “bread". The phrase "面包 mianbao" is used to form other expressions, such as "面包圈mianbao quan" - bread in the shape of a ring that is fried or baked, and "面包车 mianbao che" - a passenger car of small or medium size, rectangular shape, so named because of the appearance resembling bread. It is worth noting that the concept of "bread" did not arise in China, where there is a similar food product - "mantou" (steamed bread; unleavened bun steamed).

{bread/面包 mianbao in Chinese} ={[A food product baked from flour dissolved in water]+[symbol of a wonderful life]}

{bread/面包 mianbao in Russian} ={[A food product baked from flour dissolved in water]+ [grain]+ [livelihood]+[symbol of a warm welcome] }

The category of bread belongs to the well-known knowledge of mankind, therefore the Russian language and the Chinese language are the same. However, there are cultural differences between Russian and Chinese, which are related to differences in the experimental characteristics of metaphorical concepts. In China, the period of bread introduction was short, so bread in China is higher in price than other basic products (mantou, rice), therefore, bread is often used as a metaphor for a prosperous life. At the same time, bread has been known in Russia for a long time, and for Russians it is an integral part of everyday food, while bread is relatively cheap, therefore it is a symbol of hospitality and is important.

Table 1: “Bread/面包 mianbao" in Chinese, derived from the BCC corpus

Of the 10,000 sentences containing the word “bread" downloaded from the Chinese corpus, only 93 Chinese words “bread" have a figurative meaning based on conceptual metaphors. In this metaphor, the Chinese word “bread” is used in the context of ensuring material well-being. This concept was borrowed from a Russian film called Lenin in 1918. Moreover, all figurative meanings of the word “bread" use structural metaphors.

For example: "mianbao hui you de, yiqie dou hui you de" ("Bread will be, everything will be") is a common expression in Chinese that includes a metaphor. It reflects the symbolic importance of bread for achieving well-being and prosperity in life. In Chinese culture, bread is seen as a symbol of abundance and wealth.

Among the 10,000 sentences mentioned, no phraseological units using the word “bread/面包 mianbao" in Chinese were found. It is worth noting that bread has been present in Russia for a much longer period than in China. Russian Russian bread remains one of the main food products for local residents to this day, therefore, unlike in China, the Russian word “bread” has a much wider semantic range in a linguistic context.

Russian Russian Dictionary Table 2: The word “bread” in the Russian language based on the materials of the corpus “National Corpus of the Russian language”.

In the analyzed corpus, consisting of 11,714 sentences with the use of the word “bread”, sorted by the frequency of its combination with other words, it was found that the figurative meaning of this word occupies a significant proportion: “grain”: “sow bread", “harvest bread" (1.00%); “livelihood”: “daily bread” (4.28%), “earning bread” (2.94%), “eating bread for free” (1.03%); “symbol of a warm welcome": “bread and salt" (10.22%) and others. When using figurative meanings, structural metaphors (for example, “livelihood”; “the symbol of a warm welcome is bread”) and metonymies (for example, “grain is bread") act as defining elements.

Phraseological units with the word "bread" in Russian

In a narrow sense, phraseological units are understood only as idioms - stable combinations of words, the meanings of which are not determined by the meanings of the words included in them ^{[7, p.76]}. In a broad sense, phraseology covers all stable expressions, including proverbs ^[4], sayings ^{[8, p.205]}. There are different points of view of scientists on the classification of phraseological units, and this study examines such phraseological units that are included in the phraseological dictionary ^[15]. From the phraseological dictionary "Phraseological Dictionary of the Russian Literary Language" by A. I. Fedorov (2008), six groups of phraseological units with the use of the word "bread" were identified, forming a total of 33 phraseological units. In Russian, groups of phraseological units with the word "bread" have a basic metaphor, which consists in the following: a means of livelihood (11 phrases) (TO GET BREAD; EARN <YOUR OWN BREAD, etc.); food (11 phrases) (TO SURVIVE FROM BREAD TO WATER; TO SELL BREAD FROM whom. etc.); close relationships (5 phrases) (BREAD AND SALT IS with whom, etc.); benefit (4 phrases) (FREE BREAD IS. etc.) and others (2 phrases) (ON GOVERNMENT LOAVES, etc.). They manifest structural metaphors such as livelihood-bread, benefit, as well as ontological metaphors, for example, close relationships-bread.

Phraseological units with the word "rice/米 mi" in Chinese

In Chinese, phraseology is "idiomatic expressions" that are fixed phrases or sentences in the language, that is, relatively stable expressions formed as a result of long–term use and widespread among various ethnic groups. In Chinese, they are also called “shuyu". Based on the classification of Chinese scientists, Chinese phraseological units should include idioms, proverbs, sayings, aphorisms ^[16].

There are no phraseological units in the Chinese language containing the word "bread/面包 mianbao ". Similar to the figurative meaning of the word "bread" in Russian, the Chinese language also has the hieroglyph "米mi" (rice), which performs a similar metaphorical function.

{pic/米 in Chinese} ={[Usually growing on artificially irrigated soil in a warm climate, the grain of which is used for food]+ [grain]+ [livelihood]+ [symbol of wealth]}

Phraseological units with the word "rice/米 mi" in Chinese use structural metaphors such as livelihood (为五斗米折腰 wei wu du mi zhe yao: bowing for five dou of rice, enduring humiliation); wealth (鱼米之乡 yu mi zhi xiang：rich and fertile lands), as well as metonymies, for example, grain (斗米数布 dou mi shu bu: a bucket of rice and a foot of cloth; a small amount of grain and cloth).

There are no phraseological units with the word "bread" in the Chinese language. However, the Chinese word "rice/米 mi", close to the metaphor of "bread" in Russian, has a figurative meaning as a means of livelihood and sustenance. Russian Russian can mean "close relationship" and "benefit", which are not present in Chinese "rice", and "rice" in Chinese can be associated with the concept of "wealth", which is absent in Russian. Phraseological units with the word "rice/米 mi" in Chinese use structural metaphors, such as livelihood-rice; wealth-rice, as well as metonymies, for example, grain-rice. Rice is an important food item for the Chinese, especially for residents of the south of the country. Based on the experience of the food culture and the use of rice, one can notice the rich metaphorical meaning of idioms containing the word "米mi/rice", while there are no idioms containing the word "bread". This indicates that experience is one of the important conditions in metaphor.

The difference in the function of the word "bread/面包" in Russian and Chinese and the reasons

It should be noted that there is no single equivalent of the Russian word “bread” in Chinese. Nevertheless, it can be noted that there is a lexical intersection of the noun “rice".

According to V.N. Telia ^[13], the phraseological composition of the language is "a mirror in which the linguistic and cultural community identifies its national identity." It is those figurative expressions that are associated with cultural and national standards, stereotypes and mythologems that are fixed and phraseologized in the language, and when used in oral speech, they reproduce the mentality characteristic of a particular linguistic and cultural community, serving as a "spiritual equipment" and "psychological tools" for it. ^[14]. Two languages - Chinese and Russian - contain important terms related to food culture in their lexicons, but each ethnic group uses its own terms. It follows from the above that for Russians the word “bread” has a basic but important meaning, and they treat this product positively. In turn, for the Chinese, 米/rice is associated with the concept of "positive evaluation".

The differences in the concept and metaphor of "bread" in Russian and Chinese are due to the diversity of cultures of the two countries. Firstly, this is due to the natural conditions. Russia has favorable conditions for growing wheat, so bread from this grain crop has become one of the main food products of Russians. Most of the rice crops in Asia are distributed in monsoon zones, where a combination of certain conditions - humidity, heat and light – creates a favorable environment for rice cultivation. Secondly, geographical conditions also play an important role. Rice fields in Asia are located mainly in the middle and lower reaches of rivers, plains, deltas and coastal areas. The terrain in these areas is mostly flat, which is convenient for drainage and irrigation of water, and the water source is guaranteed. Thirdly, economic influence also has its significance. The production process of rice cultivation is complex and time-consuming, requiring many resources for intensive farming. East Asia, Southeast Asia and South Asia are among the most densely populated regions in the world, which allows the use of cheap labor for the rice growing industry in Asia. Studying the phraseological units “rice" in Chinese allows you to get a lot of information about Chinese culture. There is a Dragon Boat Festival in China, during which people eat rice dumplings. In addition, there are other holidays associated with eating "rice", for example, at the Lantern Festival, people eat yuanxiao (boiled gingerbread balls made of glutinous rice flour with filling); at the Laba festival, a festive porridge made of rice and beans is prepared. Most cooking methods in China relate to high-temperature cooking, such as frying, roasting, simmering, etc.

Experiential differences form different bodily sensations, which in turn affect differences in people's thinking and language. Examples of such differences can be found in metaphorical vocabulary. Cultural differences arise simultaneously in both modern and historical contexts. Differences in experience and historical background lead to cognitive differences, which forms different metaphors - common metaphors (physical meaning), metaphors of experience and metaphors of history, the latter two factors are the source of ethnic differences in metaphors.

Conclusion

Food is an important carrier of different cultures, which can be illustrated by food phraseologisms from different nations. In Russian, the word "bread" is widely used and inseparable from its long-standing food culture, whereas in Chinese, phraseological units with the words "bread/面包mian bao" are much less common. The metaphorical function of "bread" makes up a significant part of the Russian language, while "bread" in Chinese occupies only a very small proportion.

In Chinese, there is a word "米 mi/rice", which has a metaphorical function similar to the Russian word "bread". However, both words have phraseological units expressing the same metaphorical meaning, but there are also certain differences.

Conducting a comparative analysis of the metaphorical content of the same vocabulary and phraseological units having a similar metaphorical function in Russian and Chinese through the corpus allows us to reveal that different cultures and peoples, under the influence of geographical and economic factors and other factors related to history and culture, associate the same words with different connotations.

Deepening the understanding of the metaphor of "food" in different languages and exploring the peculiarities of culture helps to overcome barriers in communication between different countries.