Features of Portuguese colonial architecture in South Asia in the period from XVI to XVIII centuries.

Chen' Ke Postgraduate student, Department of History of Western European Art, Institute of History, St. Petersburg State University 199034, Russia, Sankt Peterburg oblast', g. Sankt Peterburg, ul. Korablestroitelei, 35 korpus 4, kv. 66 st097198@student.spb.ru Other publications by this author

The colonialism of European countries has left a significant imprint on the culture of countries around the world, including their architecture. The Portuguese Empire reached its heyday in the XVII-early XIX centuries and had its outposts in South America, Asia and Africa. Portuguese influence is reflected in various forms of architectural, artistic, cultural, religious, linguistic and political influence. The regions in which traces of Portuguese influence in Asia are more or less present include India (Goa, Diu, Daman, Bombay, Calicut, Cochin, Laccadive Islands, Vasai, Kananor, Chaul, Chittagong, Kranganor, Hooghly, Dadra and Nagar Haveli, Masulipatam, Mangalore, Nagapatam, Paliakate, Kowlan, Salsett, Sao Tome de Melapur, Surat, Tuticorin), Indonesia (Flores, Moluccas, Makassar, Banda Islands, West Timor), Malaysia (Malacca), China (Macau), Japan (Dejima), Sri Lanka and the Maldives, as well as the Arabian countries (Oman, Yemen, UAE, Bahrain, Persia). In this article, the author will consider the peculiarities of the influence of Portuguese culture on architectural styles in those regions of South and Southeast Asia where there was a strong Portuguese presence during the XVI-XVIII centuries. The article uses such research methods as historical analysis, typological and systematic analysis, which allows to show the specific features of the relationship and synthesis of the arts of the selected period, formal and stylistic analysis aimed at analyzing the external and internal forms of a work of art, semiotic and hermeneutic analysis, as well as some general scientific methods such as analysis, synthesis and etc . Using this methodology, the main trends in the development of architecture in Asian countries under the influence of the Portuguese colonial Empire and Portuguese art will be identified.

Portuguese colonial architecture is functionally divided into military, residential (civilian) and religious. Military architecture includes fortresses and forts. It is important to understand that the Portuguese colonial empire in Asia was built mainly on trade and missionary work, and not on power influence, so these fortresses primarily served as trading posts, whose task was to protect goods and people – merchants and missionaries ^{[1, p. 27]}. Military structures are divided into three types: fortresses built next to settlements to protect the territory (1), small, isolated forts to protect strategic locations (2), and large fortresses completely surrounding a settlement or city (3). Fortresses to protect strategic points were built, as a rule, in places open to the sea and as closed as possible from the land side, for example, on islands, capes or peninsulas. Many fortresses, especially of the second and third types, were closed systems, on the territory of which there were churches, houses, educational institutions, etc. In the early years of the Portuguese colonies in India, the entire system was based on four foundations: carteses (tax protection documents), armadas, trading posts and fortresses ^{[1, p. 27]}. In addition, large fortresses of the third type served as a way to separate the Christian and non-Christian local population. Portuguese fortresses ran in a chain around the Indian Ocean from the island of Mozambique (in the western Indian Ocean off the coast of Southeast Africa) to Diu, Goa and Malacca in the east, and further to Macau, Malaysia, Indonesia and East Timor. Fortification architecture is represented mainly by forts, which are currently mostly in rather poor preservation.

The largest number of forts is located in India, in particular, in the Goa region, which was the center of government of the entire so-called Portuguese India. Discovered and conquered by the Portuguese general Afonso de Albuquerque in 1510, Goa was heavily influenced by Portugal for several hundred years.The first Portuguese wooden fortress in India was built in Cochin in 1503, in 1505 it was replaced by a stone one ^{[2, p.135]}.The best preserved in Goa are the forts of Tiracol Aguada (XVII century.), Cabo Raja Bhavan (XVI century.) and Cabo de Rama (rebuilt by the Portuguese from an Indian fortress in 1760). Some of their fortress walls have been preserved, along with ornate gates, repeating the triumphal arches in Rome. Fortresses, for example, the Bassein Fort (1536, Vasai, Maharashtra) near Mumbai, retained a noticeable imprint of Portuguese architecture, reflected in the layout and internal structures of the decagonal fort (Fig.1). Forts often had churches, schools and hospitals on their territory. So, on the territory of the destroyed fort in Vasai, five buildings have survived to this day: the Franciscan Church of St. Antonio, the Church of the Holy Name of Jesus and the Jesuit College, the Church of Our Lady of Life, the Dominican Church and the monastery of Gonzalo Garcia and the Cathedral of St. Joseph. In addition to India, Portuguese forts of varying degrees of preservation are present in Malaysia (A'Famosa Fortress in Malacca), Indonesia (forts Kalamata, Castela, Kota Janji, Tolucco on Ternate Island, as well as several fortresses onSulawesi and Java Island), in Sri Lanka (forts Arippu, Galle and Punerin), in East Timor (Redoubt of Councilor Jacinto Candido, Fort Balibo), in the Maldives (fortMale) and in Macau (Fortaleza do Monte, Fort Barrai Fortress Guya).Most of the forts were built in the XVI-XVIII centuries. Some of the forts had a star-shaped bastion shape (for example, the Kalamata fortress was designed to resemble the four corners of a compass with four pointed bastions and an observation deck), but sometimes the fortresses also received an elongated Iberian (some researchers call it "phallic" ^{[3, p. 253]}) layout (for example, Fort Tolucco). Since many forts were built on the coast, the structure of the Diu fortress (1535), which the sea wraps around on three sides, was quite common. The outer wall of the fort was built along the coastline. The inner wall had bastions on which guns were mounted. A double moat (outer - tidal moat) between the outer and inner walls ensured the safety of the fort. The fort also had three entrance gates decorated with signs of the Christian faith and sculptures of Christian saints.

Numerous fortresses in Sri Lanka, although they were built by the Portuguese, often with the participation of the local population, but most of them were destroyed and significantly rebuilt by the Dutch after they captured the fort in the XVII century, for example, Fort Batticaloa, Fort Frederick, Fort Colombo, etc.

The fortress in Macau, like most Portuguese fortresses in Asia, follows the traditions of European fortification architecture, but in some elements the influence of Asian culture is guessed. The same can be observed in the design of the guns. For example, the bronze cannons of St. Lawrence, made in 1627, combine Christian figures in their decor, shields (quinas) with the coat of arms of Portugal and a cross with two dragon-like sea creatures inspired by Asian mythology ^{[4, p.33]}. Also in the chapel, located in the Guiya Fortress, frescoes depict both Christian and Chinese motifs. However, more often than not, fortification architecture as a whole had few specific regional features and carried mainly elements of European culture.

Another area was civil architecture, primarily residential buildings. Both Portuguese colonialists and the local population lived in such houses, and they had much more original and national features than fortifications. The most striking examples of such buildings have been preserved in India, but in other regions of Asia it is possible to identify the Portuguese influence on the architecture of residential buildings. The architectural style in Portuguese Goa, as well as in Portuguese India in general, was formed under the influence of various factors. Firstly, these are the climatic features of the hot and humid coast of India. The buildings were supposed to provide the necessary protection from the strong seasonal monsoons on the one hand, and from the heat on the other. Secondly, it is a mixture of styles and design elements from different cultures of the world. Thirdly, it is a great influence of the Manueline (late Portuguese Gothic) and Baroque styles, which are traditional for Portuguese architecture. Fourth, it is a combination of Portuguese architectural canons and local materials and construction methods. The use of Portuguese aesthetics to integrate newly converted Goan Catholics into colonial society was encouraged by the Portuguese leadership, but the local population did not completely abandon their national roots, and the resulting cultural fusion affected the design of houses.The Portuguese managed to leave a significant mark on the architecture of India. The residential buildings built in the Portuguese era are designed in a style that is unlikely to be found anywhere else on the subcontinent. The materials and methods used to build the houses were local, and the decorations and furniture were brought from different parts of the world. A typical Portuguese house in Goa is built of red laterite and wood with terracotta tiles brought from Mangalore, which was also under Portuguese control until 1640. It is worth noting that traditional pre-Portuguese houses had small windows facing into the courtyard; this reflected the peculiarities of the social status of women ^{[5, p. 460]}. Catholic houses built between the middle of the XVIII and the beginning of the XX century were more richly decorated, with balconies and verandas facing the street. Large balconies (verandas) encouraged interpersonal communication between neighbors and created more open local communities. Sometimes balconies were enclosed with decorative columns, including steps leading inside the house. It was believed that the higher the steps, the richer the owner of the house. Only the lower part of the balcony windows opened, which facilitated air circulation ^{[2, p. 137]}. The large decorative windows with stucco were inspired by the moldings (decorative details in the form of an overhead convex bar) on the windows of Portuguese houses, which served as identification signs for passing sailors. In India, moldings also served to form the identity of the house. The windows gradually became more decorative, ornate and expressive. The front doors were framed by columns or pilasters, which refers to classical European architecture. (Fig. 2) On the other hand, the railings, which were the most intricate decoration in a Goan house, as a rule, did not correspond to any particular style, but were a mixture of various architectural styles.In addition, a complex system of cornices was erected in the houses to protect them from tropical downpours. Another characteristic feature of Indo-Portuguese architecture is the use of oyster shells in window shutters instead of glass. A feature of Portuguese houses in Goa is also considered to be cross ventilation, high ceilings, an inner courtyard that provides access to light in all rooms and air movement in them, verandas and balconies. Following the Indian tradition, houses were built on stone platforms, which protected them from flooding and plant roots ^{[6, 120-121]}. In the decoration of residential buildings in Portuguese India, especially on the West Coast, there was a Muslim influence, expressed in floral and floral patterns. The houses also had certain decorative elements that symbolically conveyed certain meanings. For example, the presence of a rooster indicated the Portuguese origin of their owner, since roosters were the national bird of Portugal, and the statue of a soldier symbolized the belonging of the owner of the house to the army. Another distinctive feature of Indo-Portuguese houses in Goa is the color code that the buildings followed. Thus, all houses had to be painted in bright colors, except white, the use of which was limited only to church and administrative buildings. Azuleju (painted ceramic tiles made of tin glaze) in white and blue colors were present as an entrance decoration in all houses and were used as nameplates. The use of porcelain and ceramic tiles indicates trade links between Goa, China and other Asian countries.

The residential buildings built during the Portuguese presence on the Tamil coast represent a combination of Tamil and Portuguese cultures: they are built according to an extroverted type of layout, but the balconies and loggias of these houses are half-covered with screens.Indo-Portuguese houses on the Tamil coast are massive structures located on large plots and richly decorated, which indicates the status, wealth and power of their owners. The house plans were practically no different from the traditional Portuguese plan, which was followed in Portugal and its colonies – but at the same time the layout of rooms and partitions differed. Also, unlike roosters and soldiers in Goa, on the Tamil coast, elephants or horses were used as decorative elements in Manapada houses, symbolically indicating the trading activities of the owners. Unlike the rest of the Indo-Portuguese colonies in India, the Indo-Portuguese houses on the Tamil coast were not built by the Portuguese, but by Luso-Indians (mestizos of the Portuguese and the local population) or people belonging to the Tamil community itself. The locals welcomed the Portuguese and considered them saviors, as the Portuguese promised to protect them from the Muslims. Thus, although Portuguese rule was more clearly dominated on the west coast, on the east coast, where Portuguese culture was more favorably accepted by the local population, it is possible to identify buildings that are more original in terms of integrating local and European culture ^{[5, p.459]}.

In addition, the residential buildings of the Tamil coast are also influenced by a special style of South Asian architecture, called "Chinese Baroque" or "Sino-Portuguese style". (Fig. 3) This architecture is known as (q?l?u, "arcade") and (Zh?Ngp?ji?nzh?, "Chinese-Portuguese architecture"), and in Malaysia it is also called "Chinese-Malay-colonial style", "Chinese-Malay-Palladian style", "eclectic straits" and "tropical renaissance"^{[7, 40-41]}.This Sino-Portuguese style, propagated by the Peranakan Chinese migrants, had a great influence on the architecture of Southeast Asia.This specific blend of Asian and European building design originated approximately in the 16th century, when Portuguese settlers in Malacca and Penang (Malaysia) hired Chinese workers to build their homes and commercial buildings. This style was traditionally widespread in wealthy urban centers in southern China and on the Malay Peninsula, where Chinese settlers lived: in the territory of modern Malaysia (Georgetown, Penang, Alor Setar, Kuala Terengganu, Kuantan, Ipoh, Kuala Lumpur, Klang, Seremban, Malacca), Southern Thailand (Phuket, Ranong, Krabi, Takua Pa, Phang Nga and Satun), Singapore, Macau, Hainan (mainly Haikou) and Fujian (Xiamen). Sino-Portuguese architecture is a mixture of European and Chinese art, "colonial architecture". A characteristic feature of these houses is the combination of Chinese design and color code and Portuguese exterior design. The roofs of such houses were most often covered with Chinese curved tiles, and elements of the Chinese style, as well as Renaissance, Baroque and neoclassicism, introduced by the Portuguese, were used in the decoration of the facades. The interior layout of the houses corresponded to the Chinese traditional dwelling. The houses were rectangular in shape, with a narrow facade facing the road and very long side walls reaching to a canal or other waterway. The building was facing the road to provide trade and display of goods. Most often, the house was divided into five sections: the first (front) section was intended for displaying goods, the second part was used as an office, the third section was intended for living, the fourth for cooking, and the last and most rear section was used as a warehouse. This last section was located next to the channel through which goods were delivered to the store ^{[8, p. 3]}.

In some regions of Asia, Portuguese influence on architecture has spread beyond the Portuguese colonies proper. For example, Phuket's Old Town is famous for its Sino-Portuguese architecture. These buildings, which naturally combined Portuguese and Chinese artistic styles, were built by the Chinese and Peranakan, who moved to Phuket from Malaysia, and became rich in the 1900s from tin mining. It is worth noting that in addition to the names, the houses in the Sino-Portuguese style had other differences, noted from region to region and mainly depending on the cultural and historical context of the period of their construction. On the one hand, all houses have features that unite them, such as common facade elements (doors located in the middle and resting on windows, arches built in a row supported by pilasters, the narrow size of the facade). However, in the decoration of buildings in houses in Malacca, in addition to the Portuguese and Chinese proper, there is also an Arabic (Islamic) style, and in Phuket houses the facade decor resembles Chinese cult architecture ^{[7, 47-48]}. In addition, the architectural style of buildings in Malacca and Penang has strong British and Dutch influences. Thus, two conclusions can be drawn. Firstly, residential, commercial and other civil buildings in South Asia were built, although imitating European architectural styles, but taking into account local geographical, climatic and cultural characteristics. It is residential and commercial premises, as the closest to the local population, that are the most eclectic type of architecture in the region under consideration, in addition, here you can find the greatest variety of styles and layouts that vary from city to city. In addition, Chinese influence also plays an important role here, since the Chinese, on the one hand, were under a certain influence of Portugal, and, on the other hand, carefully preserved their culture and customs. Having settled almost all over South Asia, Chinese migrants spread the unique "Sino-Portuguese" architectural style throughout the region, even where there was no Portuguese presence as such.

In addition to residential buildings, Christian religious buildings were actively built in Portuguese possessions in South Asia. This is due to the fact that, in addition to trade, one of the primary occupations of the Portuguese in the region was missionary work, and, thanks to the Jesuits, it was so active that for some time in South Asia "Portuguese" became synonymous with "Catholic"^{[1, p.29]}. It was the church, despite its military, administrative and commercial presence, that became the diplomatic springboard of Portuguese colonialism, penetrating into areas and regions where official representatives of the empire could not get.

The center of Portuguese Christianity in Asia is, of course, the Indian state of Goa, not for nothing nicknamed the "Rome of the East" ^[9]. Goa received this name not only due to the architectural diversity of Christian shrines unique to the Asian region, but also due to its status as a center for the spread of Catholicism throughout Asia. For example, Francis Xavier, one of the founders of the Jesuit Order, preached and was buried in Goa.The first Catholic churches in Goa, dating back to the 16th century, belong to a complex of religious buildings built by the Portuguese Empire around the world in order to spread Christianity and consolidate its influence. As in the case of a number of other colonized territories, most of the churches in Goa were built in the Portuguese Baroque style, widespread at that time on the Iberian Peninsula and characterized by such architectural elements as arches and colonnades.

The construction of places of worship primarily pursued the goal of proselytism in Indian society, and the majesty of the churches reflected the power of the Christian religion. The size of the naves and arches, the total height of the structure, etc. — all this was aimed at making the strongest impression on the local population and forming a certain idea about the nature of Christianity and about colonial power ^{[10, p. 3]}. For the same reason, many (especially the first) religious buildings were built on high ground, for example, the Baroque chapels of Our Lady on the mountain in Old Goa (1510-1519) and in Mapusa (1594). (Fig. 4) In addition, during the construction of temples, the Portuguese colonialists sought to surpass such majestic Hindu and Janai temples as Khajuraho, Vitthala and Doddabasappa. It is in the combination of local architecture, most of which was influenced by the Dravidian cultures of Vijayanagar, and the architecture of European Christians that the uniqueness of the religious Christian buildings of Portuguese India lies. So, on the one hand, the temples had some influence of the classical Vijayanagara style, which is still known in South Asia ^{[10,p. 4]}. On the other hand, in an effort to make churches as impressive as possible, Christian buildings in Goa were given even more pronounced features of Baroque grandeur than was customary in Europe. Although the churches of Goa did not have such an abundance of carvings and bas-reliefs as in some famous religious buildings in Mexico or Macau (where Christian architecture sought to integrate the features of local tradition), the size of the church, as well as the height and span of the facade, noticeably exceeded the European tradition. In addition, the churches in Goa had some elements of the local architectural tradition, expressed in the design of columns and columnar pillars.

In the construction of many buildings in Goa, both residential and religious, local building materials were used, especially the laterite sedimentary rock. Laterite is a surface formation rich in iron and aluminum in hot and humid tropical areas, formed as a result of rock weathering ^[11]. Laterite was the only available building material and was characterized by such features as softness, a red ferruginous color, and at the same time a fragile and uncontrollable texture. For long–term service, this material must be plastered, for this the Portuguese used a known material not previously available in India. This helped to make laterite cladding of buildings more efficient and increase the durability of masonry, although it required frequent whitewashing at least every two years, due to the adverse effects of fungi caused by monsoons. But the lack of stone, which could be easily processed and which could resist the bad weather conditions in this region, influenced the architectural style of buildings: often in Portuguese India you can find buildings completely plastered and whitewashed. Only the most expensive and important projects used imported stone - for example, basalt from Vasai, which came under Portuguese rule in 1534. However, even in these cases, hewn or carved stone was used only as decoration (cornerstones, cornices, arch ribs or keystones) and in the decoration of niches ^{[1, p.180]}.

Both the design of Portuguese churches and their decor indicate a certain amount of eclecticism in colonial Christianity in South Asia. For example, the Basilica of Bon Jesus (1605, Old Goa) has a facade unique to the history of Christian architecture and is one of the outstanding architectural monuments in India. (Fig. 5) As one of the oldest churches in India, the basilica also represents the best example of Baroque Portuguese architecture in the region. At the same time, it has some features characteristic of local Indian architecture. Firstly, the materials used to create the facade of this monumental (the basilica has a height of 18.5 m) masterpiece — black granite and red laterite, as well as basalt used for columns – are materials of local origin, previously widely used in the construction of Hindu temples. Secondly, the facade, although quite modest, compared, for example, with the Jesuit temples of Macau, is made in the Baroque style with elements of the Corinthian, Doric and Ionic orders by the works of local craftsmen, which allowed these craftsmen who worked on the basilica according to the Portuguese project to adopt and interpret the European architectural and ornamental tradition in their own way ^{[12,p. 70]}.Thirdly, the large golden altar of the basilica testifies to the influence of Indian masters. For example, the inscription "this is my body" on the altar is made in the Konkani language common on the west coast of India. The interior of the church was inspired by mosaics and Corinthian columns of European architecture, the floor is paved with marble.

In addition to the Basilica of Bon Jesus, among the religious buildings of Portuguese Goa, it is worth paying attention to the Cathedral of St. Nicholas. Catherine (Se Katedral). (Fig. 6) St. Peter's Cathedral Catherine's Cathedral, built in 1619 in Old Goa, with its impressive size (76 m long and 55 m wide) was designed to symbolize the greatness of the Portuguese Empire and the Christian religion. The cathedral was built in the Manueline style, which combines elements of Gothic, Moorish, Renaissance and exotic, including Indian, motifs. The cathedral combines elements of late Gothic with motifs of the Spanish Plateresco and Mudejar styles, Flemish architecture and Italian urban design. The exterior of this cathedral is made in the Tuscan architectural style and is characterized by simplicity and moderation, unlike the more lavishly decorated temples in the Portuguese Baroque style.The church is a false basilica (without a clerestory between the nave and aisles) with a nave, two side aisles and side chapels, a transept and a choir. Three spans with portals on the ground floor and rectangular windows on the second floor are visible on the facade. An additional central span connected to the side walls by curved compartments eliminates the height difference between the nave and the aisles and hides the roof behind it. An entablature between the floors marks the floor level of the gallery above the entrance. The cathedral is built on a high laterite plinth covered with lime plaster. Portals, windows and niches have detailed architectural frames very close to the figures shown in the treatises of S. Serlio. Inside, the cathedral has a traditional cruciform shape, although it looks rectangular from the outside. The interior is decorated in the Corinthian Order. There are two wooden pulpits in the nave, supported by two columns on the right. There are six altars in the transept, three on either side of the main altar. The arches housing four of these altars are decorated with paintings depicting scenes from the lives of saints.

In addition, the Jesuits also built many churches in Portuguese Asia according to the plan of the Roman Church of Il Gesu in the Jesuit Baroque style. In such churches, the space for sermons was maximized by expanding the nave and eliminating aisles. Examples of such temples are the already mentioned Bon Jesus in Goa and St. Paul's Cathedral on the island of Diu (now the union territory of Dadra and Nagar Haveli and Daman and Diu) ^{[13, p.8]}.

It is worth noting that although most of the Portuguese cult architecture in India, as well as in Goa, is made in the Baroque or Renaissance style, there are also earlier buildings made in the Gothic style. They are most often found on the east coast of India in the state of Tamil Nadu. For example, the famous Basilica of Our Lady of Good Health in the city of Velancanni (late XVI century), built by Portuguese missionaries, is built in the Gothic style. It is worth noting that the sculpture of the Mother of God, located in the temple, is traditionally decorated with an Indian sari. In another former Portuguese colony in India, Sao Tome de Melapurna, on the territory of modern Chennai, another of the masterpieces of Portuguese architecture in the Gothic style was built - the Cathedral Basilica of St. Thomas (1523). This temple is known for its expressive interior, elegant stained glass windows and a beautiful spire – elements most characteristic of late Gothic. In the city of Tutukudi, you can also find another masterpiece of Portuguese Gothic architecture – the Cathedral of the Virgin Mary of the Snow, built in 1713. (the cathedral dedicated to the Virgin Mary of the Snow, built in the 1560s. It is also located in Goa, in the area of Fort Rajol, but it was built in the more familiar Indo-Portuguese Baroque style).

Another important center of Christianity in Asia, influenced by Portugal, was Macau. In addition to several fortresses and civil architecture built in the strict style of "simple architecture" of early Mannerism^[14] (for example, the Leal Senado building), in the Pombalino style characterized by the use of tiles (Macau Government House) and in the neoclassical style (Dom Pedro V Theater), the city also has a large number of religious buildings. These include the Church of St. Paul (1637-1640, now only the facade remains of it), the church of St. Dominic, the seminary (1728) and the Church of St. St. Joseph (1758), St. Lazarus Church, St. Lawrence Church, St. Atony Church, as well as the Holy House of Mercy (XVIII century). Most of these structures were built by the Jesuits in the Jesuit Baroque style.

The symbol of Macau and one of the main masterpieces of Portuguese architecture is St. Paul's Cathedral, or rather, its ruins left after the fire of 1835 – the facade and a number of tombs. (Fig. 7) The facade of the ruins of St. The Pavla measures 23 m wide and 25.5 m high and is divided into five levels. Following the classical concept of the divine ascension, the orders on the facade at each horizontal level develop from Ionic, Corinthian and composite from the base upwards. The upper levels gradually narrow into a triangular pediment at the top, which symbolizes the final state of divine ascension — the Holy Spirit. The facade is designed in the style of Mannerism and Jesuit Baroque with some distinctly oriental decorative motifs. The sculptural motifs of the facade include biblical images, mythological images, Chinese hieroglyphs, chrysanthemums (the symbol of Japan), a Portuguese ship, several marine motifs, Chinese lions, bronze statues with images of the founding saints of the Jesuit Order and other elements reflecting the influence of European, Chinese and other Asian cultures. This facade represents a doctrinal synthesis and conveys the syncretism of Asian and Christian cultural traditions: through images and some inscriptions in Chinese and Latin, knowledge about Catholic doctrine and the foundations of Christian teaching is transmitted ^[15].

St. Peter's Seminary Iosifa is the oldest higher education institution in China, it is built in an emphatically strict and modest neoclassical style. The decor on the facade of the building is practically absent. A reference to the Portuguese architectural tradition here is the courtyard-patio, characteristic of Portuguese architecture. The Church of St. Joseph's Church, built a little later, was created in the XVI-XVIII centuries more familiar to Macau. Baroque style. The building, as is often the case in Jesuit churches, has the shape of a Latin cross in the plan. Divided into three tiers, the facade is richly decorated with Baroque elements and ends with a typical broken arch for Baroque architecture. The curved pediment in the center depicts the Jesuit insignia. The facade is characterized by stucco plaster reliefs. Inside the church, in the central nave, there is a main Baroque altar, which houses old statues and panels, and in the transepts there are two more, also Baroque. The three altars are elaborately decorated, including their pediments, supported by two sets of four spiral columns decorated with delicate gold leaf ornaments. The high choir at the entrance to the church is supported by four Solomonic columns, reflecting the influence of Mannerism on Portuguese architecture. It is worth noting that, despite the obvious imitation of European Christian architecture in the Baroque style, the church also borrowed some local architectural features, for example, the roof was built using Chinese technology and covered with traditional tiles.

The Church of St. Dominic was also built in the Baroque style and is distinguished by a combination of European and local features in its design (Fig. *). This is evidenced by the use of Chinese-style tiles on the roof of the church, as well as teak doors. On the other hand, the church is certainly also built according to the canons of the Jesuit Baroque, with a triangular pediment on the facade and volutes on the sides. Intricate white plastered ornaments and moldings on the facade of the church, contrasting with the yellow walls, are a characteristic feature of the facade of St. Dominic's Church. The facade is divided into four horizontal levels and three vertical sections, the central of which is topped by a pediment decorated with an oval bas-relief with religious signs of the Dominican Order. The decorative panels between the Corinthian columns are decorated with fine stucco with exquisite relief combined with slender pilasters, giving the temple solemnity and elegance. The interior of the church is divided into three parts by two rows of Corinthian columns connected by brick arches. Side openings on the ground floor lead to a corridor on the right side of the nave of the church, which gives access to the sacristy and bell tower.The central element of the main altar of the church is a statue of the Madonna and Child, and on the sides there are carved statues of several saints made of wood and ivory.

Later churches, for example, the Church of St. Lawrence (founded by the Jesuits in 1560, the building was rebuilt in 1846), the church of St. Anthony (founded in 1560, rebuilt many times, currently exists in the design of 1930) and the church of St. Lazarus (founded in 1560, rebuilt in 1895 They were built in a more modest neoclassical style, with columns and a classical pediment. Thus, it can be noted that, on the one hand, just as in most cases in India, religious buildings in this period were built in the style of Jesuit Baroque with elements of Mannerism, and the main purpose of churches and temples was to spread the Christian religion among the local population. On the other hand, there is more syncretism in the Portuguese cult architecture of Macau than in the Indian one, in addition, the scale of the buildings is much smaller. This is due to the different nature of the "local editions" of the Christian religion and the attitude of local authorities towards Christianity.

Summing up, first of all, it can be noted that the Portuguese presence had a certain, and quite significant, impact on the local architectural tradition. However, different types of buildings show different degrees of influence. For example, the fortification architecture of Portugal has been poorly preserved and practically does not play an important role in the life of local communities. In India, most of the forts are in a dilapidated state, in other Asian countries they have undergone numerous reconstructions undertaken by other colonial powers, and only in Macau, where the Portuguese presence was the longest-lasting, they relatively organically fit into the urban landscape. This is due to the fact that fortifications were used primarily to protect newly acquired territories, and Portugal's military resources for the development of colonies were small.On the other hand, missionary and trade activities were the main "engine" of the development of colonial societies. Therefore, the religious and civil architecture of Portugal's Asian colonies has come down to us in much better preservation. In addition, because churches, residential buildings, hospitals and schools played a greater role in public life than forts, they had a stronger influence on the architecture of local communities. Speaking of civil, primarily residential, construction, it is important to note that, although the original buildings of the XVI-XVIII centuries. Little has been preserved, however, the Portuguese style has had a strong influence on the architecture of residential and commercial premises throughout the South Asian region. The Portuguese architectural style, mixing with local traditions, customs and peculiarities, formed a new style subspecies, called "Sino-Portuguese". In some cases, religious architecture has reached the Donas in its original form, also forming a local architectural canon of Christian construction. The majestic churches and cathedrals of Goa and Macau were most often built in the Jesuit Baroque style, since the main driving force of Christianity in the region were the Jesuits. However, here, as in the case of residential construction, local culture and geographical features make their own, albeit less significant, differences in classical European architecture.

On the other hand, the local culture, as well as climatic, geological and natural conditions, also influenced the introduced European architecture, forming a unique Portuguese colonial style. Many of the changes made to classic European building designs were dictated by the weather and climatic features of the area. For example, due to the strong monsoons in the regions where Portuguese colonies were established, the architects of religious buildings had to abandon arcades and large gates. Also for this reason, reinforced foundations and plinths appeared in residential buildings, unique ventilation systems were created, etc. The choice of material was associated with geological features (at least in India), where most buildings were built of red laterite, atypical for Europe. The specifics of the choice of materials were also dictated by the cultural and climatic features of the area – for example, the design and material from which the roofs of houses and churches were made throughout South Asia. Also, the culture of local civilizations, often much older than European ones, influenced the decoration and decoration of Portuguese buildings. This was largely due to the fact that local craftsmen – Hindus, Chinese, Japanese, etc. - were often used in the construction of churches and residential buildings designed by Europeans. They made their own decorative changes to the design of facades and interior decoration. E. A. Soboleva calls this phenomenon "creolization of architecture" ^{[2, p. 138]}. In addition, some changes in the traditional symbolism of Christian churches are associated with a certain degree of syncretism, which was characteristic, if not of the Christian religion in Asia, then at least of Portuguese Christian architecture, and in India the symbolism and stylistics of Hindu temples were borrowed, and in Macau – the traditional religion of the Chinese people. Thus, it can be said that both the Portuguese architectural tradition influenced the architecture of South Asia, and local cultural and natural features influenced the Portuguese tradition, forming a special Portuguese colonial style with its own exceptional characteristics and characteristics.