Northern Buddhism in the culture of the East Siberian region of Russia (on the history of the Irkutsk Spiritual Mission of the Russian Orthodox Church).

Zykin Alexey PhD in Philology Associate Professor, Head of the Foreign Languages Department, The State Institute of Economics, Finance, Law, and Technology 196601, Russia, Saint Petersburg, Pushkin, ul. srednaya 6/1-28, ul. Srednaya 6/1-28 zykinalex@mail.ru Other publications by this author

Aref'ev Mikhail Anatol'evich Professor, Head of the Department, Department of Philosophy and Social Sciences and Humanities, St. Petersburg State Agrarian University 196601, Russia, St. Petersburg, Pushkin, Peterburgskoe highway, 2 ant-daga@mail.ru

This work is related to the study of the cultural activity of the Spiritual Missions of the Russian Orthodox Church in various regions of our vast Homeland ^[5]. It is relevant in the context of the problem field of the theory of regionalism ^[11] as part of cultural and socio-philosophical knowledge.

One of the issues of a socio-political and cultural nature that has applied significance in the history of Russia has been and remains the question of the ratio "center-regions". The socio-cultural and political-psychological characteristics of the regional government, the place of a particular region in the system of the Russian state, the features of the ethno-cultural character and the specifics of the ethno-confessional were determined by the features that developed in the process of their historical formation.

The East Siberian region of Russia began to be institutionalized after Ermak's campaigns in the era of Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich, but it was already detailed in Peter's time. Although the development of this Russian region dates back to the XVI century, when domestic industrialists from Pomerania began to gradually integrate into the Ob Bay, and only after settling in the eastern territories of the lower reaches of the mouth of the Yenisei River. At the same time, a number of generations of Pomeranian industrialists were directly interconnected with the fur trades of the indigenous population ^{[1, pp. 173-176; 7, pp. 83-114]}, located on the territory of the Yenisei Region. Among them there were a large number of settlements performing the functions of support and transshipment points, which established a close relationship with the municipal (tribal) authorities in the field of economy, everyday life, etc. There was an active process of intercultural interactions ^[9].

The activity of the Russian state to establish political dominance in the East Siberian region began only at the turn of the XVII century. Russian detachments fortified themselves in this area and in 1601 founded the city of Mangazeya on the banks of the Taza River. The largest share of the indigenous citizens of Mangazey Uyezd at that time accounted for the majority of the ancestors of the modern peoples inhabiting this region, as well as the ancestors of the Evenks-Tungus. After a regular military garrison was formed in Mangazey, the local authorities managed to ensure the successful completion of the process of pumping the indigenous population in the lower part of the Yenisei riverbed. Consequently, this rather large territory was legally attached to the territories of the Russian Empire.

The integration into the Russian statehood of small Turkic ethnic formations located on the territory of the Yenisei River basin was carried out for a long period of time. So, until the end of the XVII century, a fierce political struggle was waged in the area under consideration, the main reason for which was the aggression of the Kyrgyz princes ^{[2, pp. 121-123]}. The formation of Russian settlements on the territory of the Yenisei River basin has become one of the most important stages of the integration of the ethnic groups of Siberia into a single statehood ^[4].

The entry of ethnic groups and territories of Yakutia and Buryatia into the Russian civilization was carried out almost simultaneously. However, this process took place in very peculiar conditions and was endowed with a certain number of features. On the territory of Yakutia, Russian industrial factories were first established back in the 20s of the XVII century. At this time, most of the population of Yakutia lived in a small area in the central part of the region on both sides of the Lena River basin. The integration of other groups of the Yakut ethnos and Yukaghirs in the north, as well as the Tunguska ethnos living in the eastern part of the Sea of Okhotsk, was directly related, for the most part, to the same process of formation and development of the fishing industry.

The inhabited territories of the Baikal region by the Buryatia ethnic group began to actively interact with the Russian population in the early 40s of the XVII century, when the Verkholensky prison was formed in the upper part of the Lena River basin. Since the sixties of the XVII century, on the territory of the right bank of the Angara River, the Irkutsk prison has been equipped, acting as the municipal center of the Irkutsk Region. Since the 50s of the same century, Western Mongolian ethnic groups have become much more likely to carry out armed attacks on Buryat territories. This led to the intensification of the entry of all ethnic groups living on the territory of the Western Buryat suburbs into the Russian Empire. This fact was of particular importance for the development of the history of the ethnic group of Buryatia and the formation of its national culture.

The arrival of the Russian ethnos and the settlement of the territories of Eastern Siberia was carried out according to the same scenario as the territories of Western Siberia – it went from north to south. Since the XVII century, the Russian population has been able to successfully develop and equip taiga areas for life. The integration of the territories of Siberia into the Russian state was carried out in a fairly short time due to a well-structured policy and actively formed numerous economic and cultural relationships between Siberian ethnic groups and Russians moving to the eastern territories ^[6]. In addition to issues of geographical and managerial nature, administrative division, and economic aspirations in social terms, problems of spiritual content were a significant component in the history of the Siberian regions. Shamanism in the culture of indigenous peoples, the spread of Northern Buddhism in Transbaikalia became the trends that led to the formation of Spiritual regional missions of the Russian Orthodox Church.

The history of the Irkutsk Ecclesiastical Mission is inextricably linked with the Irkutsk Archpastor, His Eminence Benjamin (1825-1892) ^{[13, pp. 132-155]}. His labors as a missionary began with his appointment to the Irkutsk department. Enlightenment became a continuation of his active missionary activity carried out on the territory of the Trans-Baikal Territory. By the time of Veniamin's arrival at the Irkutsk department, the basis for Orthodox missionary work among the Irkutsk Buryats had already been formed earlier by Veniamin's immediate predecessors, Archpastor Nil (1853-1874) and Archpastor Parthenius (1811-1873). In this regard, Vladyka Benjamin proved himself a worthy successor to the experienced missionary and administrator of His Grace Parthenius.

The Irkutsk Spiritual Mission, thanks to the mind, doctrinal and educational works of Vladyka Benjamin, received a more perfect organization and institutionalized. Having made some changes in the management of the Irkutsk mission, he made certain theoretical conclusions, which were based on the fact that for the successful activity of Christian preaching conducted among pagans, first of all it is necessary to pay special attention to increasing the number of missionary camps and the formation of school educational institutions with them, that is, issues both doctrinal and general cultural. By that time, the organized Spiritual Mission had reached 19 camps.

Along with the formation of missionary camps, Benjamin paid considerable attention to the creation of educational institutions on their territory for the education of children of indigenous ethnic groups.

Only by educating the new Buryat generation in the doctrinal Orthodox foundations and Russian cultural traditions, the Right reverend argued, can we say that the mission's work has an established and stable character. However, at the same time, the device of these educational institutions faced a number of different difficulties, the key of which was the opposition of the Buryats themselves, who did not see the benefits in the spread of literacy. Material conditions were also significant: cramped classrooms for teaching, equipped in mission houses, lack of finances for the maintenance of students in these schools. Despite all the listed problems, Benjamin managed to properly equip and organize the activities of 13 missionary educational institutions in such camps as Gujir, Shimkovsky, Koymar, Nelkhai, etc.

One of the essential issues of the religious and Christian education of young Buryats at that time was the confrontation of Orthodoxy with the influence of Mongolian Buddhism as one of the branches of Northern Buddhism. One of its key forms is Lamaism, which has become most widespread in the territories of Tibet, Mongolia, as well as the Himalayan principalities. For the first time Buddhism came to the territory of Tibet in the VIII century. It included many elements peculiar to the Tibetan bon religion. This religion took the form of shamanism, encouraged the worship of the forces beyond the grave, and also called for sacrifices and various magical rites associated with the expulsion of evil spirits from the world of the living. The key pressure on the faith in Tibet was exerted by Buddhist monks who came from India and China. All this led to the construction of a specific system of beliefs and rituals, which has come down to our time under the name Lamaism.

The first changes and transformations of Lamaism as a separate category of Buddhism in the territories in contact with the Russian Empire were carried out by Atisha, who came from India in 1042. He was a key promoter of spiritual doctrine, forming his opinion that the construction of religious life should be carried out at 3 stages: through moral practice; through a clear philosophical understanding; through mystical unification by conducting a certain number of rituals of a psychotechnical nature. According to Atisha's hypothesis, the realization of the third (religious-mystical) stage should be carried out only after the direct implementation of the first two stages.

The development of Northern Buddhism was actively continued under the direct chairmanship of Tsonghawa (1358-1419), who stopped the activities of the Geluk-pa sect. He also advocated the obligatory observance of the vow of celibacy by monks and tried in every way to form a deeper understanding of the symbolism characteristic of the Tantric ethnos. Since 1587, the Supreme Lama of this religious institution has been called the Dalai Lama (Dalai - "ocean expanse"). Already in 1641, the Dalai Lama was endowed with all the possibilities possessed by the secular and spiritual authorities in Tibet, that is, a kind of theocracy was being formed.

The Holy Scripture, formed at the time of the existence of Tibetan Buddhism, played one of the most important roles in the field of expanding the framework of Northern Buddhism. At the same time, the sacred texts also served as a key basis for endowing monks in monasteries with all the necessary knowledge and for the future guidance of peaceful citizens. The most widely distributed canonical writings, which are divided into several separate categories. Khajur includes in its content the teachings of the Buddha, presented in full from the Sanskrit original (104 or 108 volumes), as well as the Four Great Tantras (225 volumes) ^[8].

The religious school of the Krasnoshapochniki became famous among ordinary people for its practice of yogis. The founder of this educational and religious institution was Yogi Marpa. According to the Buddhologist E.A. Torchinov ^{[12, pp. 148-150]}, Marpa and his followers paid the greatest importance and priority to the practice of maha mudra. Kagyu-pa in translation into Russian means "thread" or "string". These words are transcribed as "tantra". Due to the fact that Indian teachers paid special attention to the transfer of knowledge and practical skills to their students, their Tibetan followers chose the term "Kagyu-pa" as the name of their school, which means "School of Continuity" in Russian. One of the famous Tibetan poets Milarepa (1040-1123) became a follower of Marpa and the head of the Krasnoshapochnikov school. In his youth, the future receiver of Marpa did not pay much attention to Buddhism and actively studied magic. However, as he grew older, his point of view on life changed, and he became a Buddhist. Being a hermit in the mountain caves of Tibet, Milarepa constantly practiced Tummo yoga, thanks to which he managed to repeatedly avoid death in the harsh winters characteristic of the climate of mountainous Tibet.

It should be noted that the practical experience and the developed psychotechnics of Tummo are on one of the most significant places in the teaching methods taught at the Kagyu school. When it comes to competitions of yogis who compete with each other at low temperatures in mountainous terrain, then in this case it is the Kagyupin turnips that are mentioned. Milarepa transferred all his experience and practical skills to his successor Gambop, who was a famous author of numerous Buddhist writings. Over time, the Gambopa and the Kagyu-pa educational institution had their own monasteries. In addition, the specific yoga practice has been significantly changed and supplemented by a number of different principles that are part of monastic life and self-discipline. In Mongolia, the North Buddhist monasteries (datsans) became the most widespread, and from there Lamaism as Northern Buddhism penetrated into the territory of Russia (Buryatia, Tuva, Kalmykia) ^[3].

Archbishop Benjamin's missionary activity was not limited to anything. He traveled to other countries every year, especially until his appointment as the head of the mission. In addition, he was a participant in the gatherings of elders, regularly made visits to uluses, interacted with pagans. Combining a rich mind and a kind heart, Benjamin attracted the attention of the Buryats and motivated them to join Orthodox Christianity. This had a special effect on the Buryats. In any of the missionary churches that existed at that time, he conducted episcopal service, attracting a large number of Buryats who had undergone the rite of baptism, but also pagan shamans.

The missionary camps of the Irkutsk Ecclesiastical Mission were located in three districts of the Irkutsk province: Irkutsk, Balagan and Verkholensky. The religious and moral state of people who underwent the baptism procedure differed significantly not only in the territories of the Irkutsk Region, but even in the area of the same municipality ^[10]. One of the key reasons for this phenomenon was the lifestyle and degree of financial well-being of the Buryats, proximity or remoteness from the areas where the Russian people lived. According to the degree of his well-being, assimilation of Russian culture, the newly baptized native had a number of certain differences from the pagan, one of which was in the place of residence itself. The influence of Mongolian Lamaism on the local population has a very direct effect.

This is how the missionary priest of the ROC Florensov gives a detailed interpretation of the religious and moral state of the flock. As the priest pointed out, instead of classical burkhans, at least one or several icons were located in baptized houses, Orthodox baptists regularly go to the missionary church, whereas at idolatrous services in datsan, all parishioners just do as they get drunk and treat the service of lamas absolutely not seriously ^[9]. As for "drunkenness" and "frivolity", we will make an adjustment for the time and state of religious confrontation. Florensov also points out the cases of the newly baptized's double faith. On the recommendation of lamas, some people who have undergone the baptism procedure keep idols in their homes, do not want to baptize children, thereby making a sacrifice to Buryat spirits. However, the unwillingness of such people to consecrate their marriages with a wedding in compliance with the norms and requirements of the rite regulated by the Orthodox Church has a particularly negative impact. In addition, a certain number of baptized people marry pagan women, calling them not wives as is customary in the Orthodox faith, but "cooks". Children conceived in such lawless relationships were recorded directly in the family lists of the relatives of the pagan woman who gave birth to them, and do not undergo the rite of baptism.

The intercultural situation was well represented by another district of missionary activity of the Irkutsk Ecclesiastical Mission – Balagansky, although in this district the religious and moral state of people who have undergone the rite of baptism varies greatly. According to the results of the reports of missionaries of this district, most of the citizens who have undergone the baptism procedure have fully assimilated the norms of Christian life and observe them, which allowed them to compare them with the Russian ethnic group surrounding them in the future. The key occupation of the Buryats of the Balagan district in the form of arable farming has a direct impact on the change of the usual nomadic lifestyle to a more comfortable, sedentary one. The desire of the indigenous population to move to a settled way of life, which was typical for the Russian ethnic group, was formed from the moment of the initiation procedure to Christianity of its immediate representatives. Of course, there were still quite a lot of abnormalities in the Christian life of the newly baptized (hiding children from baptism, wife "thrashing", shamanic rituals, etc.). However, their distinguishing character traits are good-nature, peacefulness, and the condemnation of dishonor. Visitors to Christian churches often also take a direct part in pagan rituals – "tailagans". The key reason for this is the cohabitation of Christians with pagans, etc. ^[9].

The doctrinal questions of both shamanists and Lamaists concerned the most diverse aspects of worldviews. This is the life of spirits, communication with them, the idea of the existence of an afterlife, etc. No one among the pagan Buryats had the most advanced ideas about life after death. In this regard, the missionaries noted, it becomes unclear why they believe in its immediate existence. As Lamaite noted, the soul of the ancestors after the death of the body moves into a plant or animal. Similarly, the shamanist cannot fully believe the shaman in his sermons and arguments. In this regard, one of the key tasks of the missionaries was to establish a rational view of further life after death in the new formations of the Christian type.

From the point of view of the pagan Buryats, the deceased person must be removed from the dwelling immediately after death, that is, given burial directly on the day of his death. Newly baptized Christians also adhere to this rite. Ethnic administrations do not provide Buryats with a detailed interpretation of the requirements of the current legislation regarding the funeral of the deceased, and, consequently, if there is such a custom, imaginary dead people are also given burial. However, in addition to a quick funeral, representatives of the Buryat ethnic group who have undergone the rite of baptism have other pagan rituals. Currently, the missionaries noted in their reports, Buryats who have undergone the rite of baptism hire representatives of the Russian ethnic group to transport the deceased from their places of residence to churchyards and not kill horses at the same time. The burial rite of the ulus Christians was often arranged as solemnly as possible, and in the process of performing this rite, the teaching of the Orthodox Church about existence in the future, in the afterlife, was proclaimed. This, in turn, could not and did not remain without the direct attention of the pagans. the problem of life and death is a general philosophical and general cultural problem.

One of the duties of missionaries of a socio-cultural nature was to provide medical care to sick representatives of other ethnic groups. The conditions of the nomadic lifestyle of the Buryats from the sanitary standards are quite unacceptable, which causes the occurrence of a large number of diseases among them. However, the missionaries pointed out, despite such a pernicious situation, medical assistance to Buryats is provided by only one district specialist in the field of medicine. If we take into account the fact that the number of Russian settlements in comparison with Buryat settlements in these areas is extremely small and they are located at a greater distance from each other, then it must be recognized that as a result of this, the situation in the field of medical care is extremely unsatisfactory. This is confirmed by the healers themselves. In order to somehow rectify the current situation, they are trying to attract missionaries to provide this kind of assistance in any possible way. For example, the Tunka Buryats are among the Lamaites, and not so long ago it was the lamas who were practically the only doctors on the territory of the entire Tunka, which increased their impact and importance among the local population. It is impossible to fully assess the effectiveness of Tibetan medicine, the missionaries pointed out. But if you look at the cost of treatment, which was carried out by lamas, as well as the use of idolatrous rites in the process of providing medical care to the patient, it can be stated that such treatment seriously affects the health of patients and often leads to serious consequences. Almost from the very moment of the formation of the Orthodox mission on the territory of the Tunka district, a certain number of measures were actively implemented aimed at protecting people who had undergone the rite of baptism from Lama medicine by providing effective medical care. Missionaries in the process of providing medical services needed to involve those with knowledge and experience in the field of medicine. In 1890, the first pharmacy was established on the territory of the Tunka district in the Shimkovsky camp, which provided medicines to missionaries as needed.

In those territories where the Buryat Lamaites are the predominant population, missionaries needed to interact with lamas as well. Under these conditions, the missionaries were required to act in accordance with a special order. Kindness to people of a different faith and a sincere desire to guide them on the path of righteousness – these are the principles of cultural interaction. Missionaries began their sermons with dialogues with lamas, during which they dealt with issues of tolerance of relationships, and only after that they began to discuss and solve religious problems, to which the lamas often willingly agreed. Since lamas are not entirely logical in their own interpretations in the narration of their own creed, the missionary, noting this kind of problem and asking to explain it in more detail, often caused smiles and, sometimes, laughter among the parishioners. However, the conduct of all verbal communication was carried out in such a way that this dialogue did not irritate the participants of intercultural contacts. Having finished his speech, the missionary proceeded to the interpretation of the Christian doctrine. It was about biblical history. The key attention in this case was paid to the life of the Lord-Savior. During the narration of the Gospel truths to his listeners, the speaker paid attention to the comparison of the features of Christianity and shamanism. However, often the audience remained silent or pointed out that faith cannot be changed. More experienced and literate people answered that the Christian faith was incomprehensible to the Buryats, the understanding of shamanism was closer and easier for them.

Many Buryats, based on the social experience and the doctrinal practice of missionaries, formed a desire to abandon the nomadic life, since such a life constantly reminds of paganism, and to arrange their life in Russian. In general, it can be stated that only after passing the rite of baptism for Buryats, the customs of Orthodox Christians and the culture of their way of life become clear, which they adopt in the future. Therefore, in the third generation of the indigenous Buryat, it is almost impossible to distinguish from representatives of the Russian ethnic group, except only by external data.

If we talk about the success of missionary preaching among the Buryats, then in this case special attention is paid to the significant differences in the results of missionary activity on the territory of the 3 districts of the Irkutsk mission: Irkutsk, Balagan and Verkholensky districts. The key difference is depending on the upbringing and the point of view of the Buryats on Christianity. Followers of shamanic creeds, speaking about the Russian faith, point out that the Christian faith is the best. At the same time, the Lamaites of the Shimkovsky and Alar departments have the greatest difference, on the territory of which a Buddhist idol (datsany) operates. Lamas, through the tales of the miracles of Tibet and Mongolia, make a significant contribution to strengthening the fact that there is nothing better than the "yellow faith" in the world ^[9].

In the Tunka region, the missionaries emphasized, where Buddhism is mainly held, the lamas made every effort to increase their own influence on local citizens, using usury for this, as a rule. Through established contacts with agents, they provide loans to representatives of indigenous ethnic groups at the appropriate time. However, it carries out such interaction not on behalf of llamas, but on behalf of their economic agents.

As a conclusion, we note that the largest share of non-native leaders in this territory belonged to Buddhists, therefore Lama debts, respectively, were subject to primary repayment. Consequently, the financial capabilities and influence of lamas were rapidly increasing, and poor citizens involuntarily obeyed the wishes of creditors. In this way, the doctrinal question was connected here with the economic and economic question.

Since Buddhism in the Russian Empire belonged to the section of tolerant religions, direct (administrative) pressure on it was impossible. There remained funds of an exclusively spiritual nature, to which Orthodox missionary work was directed. We would like to point out that today in the Russian Federation Buddhism, as well as Islam, Catholicism and Protestantism, as well as some other faiths belong to the category of traditional religions, which organizationally operate within the framework of the modern Russian Constitution.

It is also important to note that the Buryat Shamanists differed significantly from the Buryat Lamaites. This was especially true with regard to the preaching activities of missionaries. Shamanism gradually lost its importance. This is explained by the illiteracy of shamans, which means that the whole teaching about spirits – western and eastern Tengri – is oral. Therefore, it is quite subjective, it depends on the authority of a particular shaman. The days of shaman domination, the missionaries claimed, have passed and the younger generation treats shamans without the same enthusiasm. Only old people sometimes remember the names of ancient shamans who were able to stand unscathed on a hot iron, etc. Old shamanists do everything so that their offspring do not undergo the rite of baptism. Female shamanists also keep their husbands in the ancestral faith under threat of leaving for another husband. However, as the materials of the reports of Spiritual missions show, shamanists gradually and positively relate to Christianity, actively participate in intercultural contacts with the Russian population of the region.