Color as the meaning-forming concept of Zhang Yimou's film "Hero"

IntroductionThe relevance of studying the proposed topic is due to a complex of factors.

Firstly, many modern directors and cameramen pay quite a lot of attention to the color scheme of the film. The color palette plays an important role in the conceptual understanding of the idea, in the understanding of artistic images, in the disclosure of the main idea of the work. Cinematography is an audiovisual art, so the coloristic solution of many films becomes the leading semantic concept. Secondly, the modern Russian audience is increasingly paying attention to Chinese and Korean cinematographers, since for a long time the film market was oversaturated with the same type of Hollywood films. Many films by Chinese and Korean directors have a fairly high rating among the audience and the recognition of world film critics. 

The purpose of this article is to study the color symbolism and the general coloristic solution of the film "Hero" by the famous Chinese director Zhang Yimou. The conceptual understanding of color perception is considered in the light of national traditions and historically established stereotypes. The research methodology assumes a comparative historical approach to the study of the importance of certain colors in the culture of different peoples, in particular, in the Chinese and Russian traditions. The conceptual understanding of the coloristic solution of Zhang Yimou's film "Hero" is based on the analysis of the artistic techniques used by the director.  In scientific articles of scientists dealing with various issues of the use of color in art, one can find mention of this film by Zhang Yimou, but the problem of conceptual understanding of the coloristic solution of the visual series of the film has not been studied in detail. The article analyzes the color symbolism of the film "Hero" in the aspect of understanding the meaning of the parable and the idea of the cinematic work.

Aesthetics of color, color symbolism in artQuestions affecting certain aspects of understanding the significance of color in art are the subject of study by many scientists.

Researchers note that not only art historians were interested in the emotional impact of color on a person, but also artists, musicians, writers such as Leonardo da Vinci, I. V. Goethe, A. Schopenhauer, E. Delacroix, K. Roerich and many others [[1]]. The importance of color in the perception of a work of art was emphasized by N. A. Kormin in the article "Art and aesthetic structures of color metaphysics". The author reflects that the visual world is overflowing with many objects, the aesthetic expressiveness of which is conveyed through the identity of color and shape. "The aesthetics of color is an offshoot of the metaphysics of light itself, the entire photonic sphere, the idea of which can be considered as a source, in the language of Edmund Husserl, of intentional radiation in a variety of ranges. Color as such is perhaps the most mysterious aesthetic phenomenon, in the conception of which the life of various types of art, primarily painting, theater and cinematography, is commanded ..."^[2].  

Most of the works of researchers of the role and significance of color in the disclosure of the idea of the work concerns painting, but color also carries an important semantic load in works of literature and cinema as audiovisual art. Currently, articles are also being published that reveal the symbolism of color in architecture, interior design, festive rituals and clothes of representatives of different nationalities. Various aspects of color symbolism were studied by Itten I., Grishkov V. V., Zabozlaeva T. B., Mironova L. N., Serov N. V., Surina M. O. and many others.

For example, you can note interesting works that reveal certain aspects of the color scheme of images in the literature. Darenenkova V. S. studied the symbolism of color in the stories of the English writer A. S. Bayett ^[3]; ^[4]. Posokhova E. V. raised the issues of interpretation of color motifs in the novels of the modern Turkish writer Orhan Pamuk ^[5]. The color symbolism of F. S. Fitzgerald's novel "The Great Gatsby" was analyzed ^[6]. The light and color solutions of Chinese and Japanese mythological characters were studied by D. N. Belova ^[7].

 Scientists are investigating various aspects of working with light and color in cinema. The significance of the color scheme as an element of the dramatic concept of the film is analyzed by V. F. Poznin ^[8]. Khrenov N. A. reveals various aspects of aesthetics and semiotics of cinema on the example of the works of S. M. Eisenstein ^[9].

Recently, many scientific articles have appeared about the art and culture of China due to the increased interest in Eastern culture and the established friendly relations. For example, Bazarova A. N. analyzes the lexical system of color designation in the modern Chinese language ^[10]. The color symbolism of the Chinese government is considered by E. A. Musalitina ^[11].   The cultural code of Chinese folk tales is analyzed by Tong Dandan ^[12]. The linguistic and cultural aspect of the color symbolism of China was considered  Polyakova E. A. ^[13].   Yang Jing describes traditional Chinese costume in the context of cultural tradition ^[14].  

Researchers, analyzing the peculiarities of the perception of works of art and cultural codes, pay great attention to the color solution, since color, due to its physical informational properties, plays an important role in the awareness of the image seen and the information space as a whole. In this regard, there are works in which an attempt is made to determine the meaning-forming components of the use of a particular color for certain purposes in cultural tradition and works of art.

On the one hand, such studies are necessary due to the fact that they allow us to comprehend many processes in the perception of culture and art. On the other hand, it is important to keep in mind that the perception of color is ambivalent, ambivalent, as it can cause contradictory, sometimes opposite feelings.

The famous cinematographer V. Zheleznyakov emphasized the subjective nature of emotions that are caused by the perception of color, since color itself does not carry any original meaning and is determined by the peculiarities of consciousness and multiple associative constructions ^[15]. 

Since the art of cinema from the first steps of its origin to the present time is based on the principles of color design and compositional construction mainly on techniques developed in painting, in the works of many directors there is a highly artistic attitude to many images in the frame. Of course, the coloristic solution of the film depends on the general ideological and artistic concept, the dramaturgy of the film and its genre affiliation.

 Despite the ambivalence of the perception of color symbolism, "color can become an essential component of the drama of a film if its authors take into account the psychological impact of colors and their combinations on the viewer." Developing the idea of a conceptual understanding of the symbolism of color, Poznin V. F. emphasizes that "the symbolism of color cannot be considered outside the context in which one or another color accent or color leitmotif is used, and the genre of the film, because the coloring of the object in different situations and different artistic space can carry different symbolic content" ^{[8, p. 421-425]}.

There are not many works in the world cinema in which color has a conceptual meaning. Among them is Zhang Yimou's film "Hero".

The artistic originality of Zhang Yimou's work Zhang Yimou is a well–known modern Chinese director and producer whose works are recognized by the audience and world film critics.

Zhang Yimou's work is interesting to Russian and world viewers, as it combines a kind of national Chinese flavor and a worldview close to Russian and European viewers.

Zhang Yimou is the winner of the Grand Prix of the Cannes Film Festival, the Grand Prix of the Berlin Film Festival, the highest award of the Venice Film Festival, has been repeatedly nominated for the Academy Award for best foreign language film.  His works are distinguished by a high artistic level, extraordinary interpretation of many events, vivid artistic solution of images, preservation of national traditions. It is possible to distinguish a number of works that are characterized by national identity, originality of the idea and its artistic embodiment. Among them are "Red Gaolian" (1987), "Raise the Red Lantern" (1991), "Live" (1994), "The Road Home" (1999), "Hero" (2002), "House of Flying Daggers" (2004).

Bright original creativity of the director is in demand not only in cinema. Zhang Yimou is the only director in the world who became the director of the opening and closing ceremonies of two Olympic Games: the Summer Olympic Games in Beijing in 2008 and the Winter Olympic Games in Beijing in 2022. The Winter Olympic Games were held not so long ago, the Russian audience remembered the unusual, peculiar in beauty and design of the opening ceremony of the Games. This enchanting show is worthy of attention thanks to an extraordinary approach and a kind of work with the color scheme and lighting design. It is these qualities that distinguish the best works of a director in cinema.

The film "Hero" is interesting, on the one hand, because the plot is based on historical subtext, on the other hand, the whole film is a game with the viewer, since it is almost impossible to distinguish truth from lies. The filmmakers reflect on the most important issues of a moral, philosophical and socio-political nature. The dialogue with the viewer takes place through artistic images and their interpretation, based on a variety of details, including the originality of the color scheme.

Zhang Yimou refers to the history of the first Chinese emperor Qin Shi Huang. The action takes place about two thousand years ago. At that time, China was a fragmented state, it was divided into seven kingdoms. Internecine wars cause great harm to the economy and people and cause numerous conflicts. During this period, the ruler of the Qin kingdom is trying to conquer all the neighboring kingdoms because. according to legend, he had a dream about the need to unite all the warring states into a single strong empire so that internecine wars would stop and it would be possible to resist external enemies.  

The plot is based on the story of a warrior who devoted his life to the idea of killing the cruel and warlike ruler of the kingdom of Qin. The director invites the viewer to think about a serious problem that the hero is trying to solve for himself. What is better for the inhabitants and the future state: to preserve the independence of individual small kingdoms at any cost or to cede power to a person who, trying to conquer neighboring states, will be able to create a single strong and independent empire in the future? The question is not simple and cannot be considered unambiguously. Hence Zhang Yimou's desire to clothe this story in a fabulous parable form, putting questions in front of the viewer, the answers to which will need to be sought together with the main characters.

To solve the artistic problem, Zhang Yimou invites the famous Hong Kong cinematographer of Australian origin Christopher Doyle. K. Doyle is known to the cinematographic community and the audience as a professional who knows how to find original color solutions and unexpected camera angles. From the first second of the film to the last frame, the picture surprises with the originality of the coloristic solution, a complex intra-frame composition, an unexpected change of angles and plans, the depth of the problem being raised. The film "Hero" won the Alfred Bauer Award at the 53rd Berlin Film Festival, was nominated for an Oscar and the Golden Globe.

Compositionally, the film consists of four short stories. The first three tell the same story from a different angle and a different color scheme with a dominant of red, blue-blue and white shades of color. The fourth conveys one of the episodes of the personal relationship between the two characters using a green color scheme. In the history of world cinema, you can find films built on the principle of separating episodes not only at the level of the event series, but also at the level of coloristic solutions. 

For example, V. F. Poznin in the article "Color as an element of the drama of the film" describes several cinematic works with a similar composition, in which the color scheme of episodes plays an important dramatic role. In the film "The Imaginarium of Doctor Parnassus" directed by Terry Gilliam (2009), the real world is depicted in a familiar traditional way, while the imaginary characters see unusual, bright and colorful. In David Fincher's film "The Mysterious Story of Benjamin Button" (2008), three chronotopes have a different flavor. "The episodes taking place in the present are solved in the usual scale, conveying all the multicolour of the surrounding world. When showing the events of the past, sepia dominates. Memories of distant events are solved entirely in monochrome and slightly blurred black and white. In this case, both the functional role of color is used, which helps the viewer to quickly perceive each of the three chronotopes, and the emotional impact of the color scheme of the episodes." Also, analyzing the color palette in cinema, V. F. Poznin touches on the film "Hero" by Zhang Yimou, emphasizing that most often visual symbolism is found in films created in genres dominated by convention, such as fairy tale, parable, fantasy or musical. The author of the article draws the reader's attention to the fact that each of the three short stories in the film "Hero" is solved in a color key bearing ambivalent symbolism [8. pp. 416-425].   

The color solution of Zhang Yimou's film "Hero"The plot of the film is the story of an Unnamed hero who decided to take revenge on the ruler of the kingdom of Qin.

In order to gain trust and be able to personally talk to the ruler, he publicly defeats his three main enemies in battle (Sky, Broken Sword, Flying Snow) and brings their swords as proof of it.  Arriving at the ruler of the kingdom of Qin, he reports on how he defeated the enemies.This story is told three times. The viewer sees three versions of events, each of which is made in its own color scheme.

From the director's point of view, color should give a deeper understanding of the idea of the work. The first version of events is red; the second version is blue–blue; the third is white; the background is green. The denouement of events is white again. A neutral color scheme and a black-and–white fragment - a meeting with a hero named Sky.

Arriving at the ruler, Nameless tells how he defeated the warriors named Sky, Broken Sword and Flying Snow. The coloristic solution of the episode is red. In the first seconds of the fragment, red looks quite organic and can symbolize the history of victory over enemies. Red is one of the most ambiguous colors. His ambivalence is motivated by many factors. In the history of world and Chinese culture, it is filled with quite contradictory content.

Bazarova A. N. notes that "in the understanding of every Chinese, red is the color of happiness and joy. In China, people hang out red lanterns on holidays, stick red inscriptions with wishes. The bride puts on a red wedding dress, the groom attaches a large red flower to the lapel of the jacket" ^{[10, p. 44]}. The same idea is developed by E. A. Polyakova, who emphasizes that the red color in Chinese symbolism means life in all its manifestations, corresponding to the elements of fire and the Sun [13. p. 90].  

This attitude to the color red is one of the reasons for the trustful perception of the story being told in the first frames of the fragment. At the same time, Russian and European viewers perceive red quite ambiguously. For example, Abakumova E. V. notes that "red is the most aggressive color, it is pain, love, anger, blood, war, death, courage, as well as health and manhood. This is the color of life, active and aggressive… For the Romans, red is the divine color, the color of victory. When the Roman generals were victorious, they painted their faces with red paint in honor of their god of war Mars, and the Babylonians called the red planet Mars after their god of death - "Negrad" ... But red is also the color of love. The red color of love goes back to fire, passion." Reflecting on the symbolism of the red color, the author of the article draws attention to the fact that the red color is "universally used as a warning about danger and stop signals." In nature, poisonous insects often have a coloring with a predominance of red" ^[16], p. 151.

It is no coincidence that Zhang Yimou chooses this particular color scheme for this episode. The viewer, together with the ruler, gets acquainted with the story of the Nameless One and comprehends his story. No one knows if the story is true or if it is a hoax.

Conceptually, red is very important in this fragment due to its ambiguous perception. It is red that gradually begins to cause concern, alarm. His task is to expose the deception in front of the ruler and the audience.

 The viewer no longer believes the Nameless hero, because there is too much red, too much fire, flying arrows. Too much passion and blood-red shades. The story of the Nameless One would be credible if it were not for the aggressively red color of the events. The ambivalence and ambivalence of the attitude towards red remains until the end of the episode, because the most important hieroglyph, which is drawn in the course of the events, is also depicted in red (Fig. 1).

Figure 1. A frame from the movie "Hero". Work on the hieroglyph.

The red hieroglyph should reinforce the credibility of the story, but there are too many conditional details that raise questions and give rise to doubts. The growing dominant of red color generates a feeling of anxiety and distrust of the story in combination with elements of artistic convention: an abundance of unnecessary details and elements of choreographic staging. Flying blood-red clothes, flying arrows, dancing with swords. There is a feeling of immersion in a fairy tale, illusion, deception (Fig. 2, 3).

Figure 2. A frame from the movie "Hero". Red color in the pictorial solution of the frame.

Figure 3. A frame from the movie "Hero". The color scheme is in shades of red.

The ruler of the kingdom of Qin does not see the color of the events being told, unlike the viewer – he is a listener. But the hero does not believe the essence of the story, which is based on love and murder out of jealousy of two heroes: A Broken sword and Flying snow.

Gradually, we can come to the conclusion that the red color rather expresses the inner state of the Nameless hero. There are too many colors for a murder out of jealousy. Two of the strongest and bravest warriors who dared to make an attempt on the ruler; people who hone the details of martial arts and strength of character with calligraphy, the art of creating hieroglyphs, must have endurance and fortitude. Such heroes should not give in to emotions and feelings of jealousy so easily. If the cause of the conflict between the two heroes is jealousy, then a Broken sword and Flying Snow are emotional and unrestrained characters. There is a feeling of deception, which the red color complements.

The cold mind of the ruler of the kingdom of Qin suggests another version of events: the enemies agreed in advance and lost the battle to the Nameless One. Defeating the ruler's enemies allows the winner to get 10 steps closer, which will give him a chance to kill him. Red is replaced by blue, blue-blue color scheme.

The version of the events that took place, narrated by the ruler of Qin and shown to the viewer in blue and blue tones, could have actually happened. The viewer at the first shots is ready to perceive the events he saw as a true story. Several factors interfere with this: the blue-blue color scheme and unnecessary detailed details. The blue color as the color of a rational approach gradually causes a feeling of illusion or deception. Too many details that the ruler cannot know are also a factor that casts doubt on the truth of events. The viewer gradually realizes that the ruler is presenting the version that could be from the point of view of a logical explanation of the prehistory, but he does not know whether it is true or not.

Describing the perception of blue and blue shades of color, many researchers focus on the fact that the colors blue and light blue are associated with loyalty, justice, perfection. "The ancient Egyptians indicated the truth in blue. This is the color of Zeus and Hera, who live above the clouds. Blue symbolizes valor and superiority." Blue and light blue colors are often associated with noble origin, hence the epithet "blue blood" ^{[16, p. 150]}.           

"The blue color is ambiguous and causes various associations, changing the meaning of the image, creates a complex perception of it. The color of tranquility, harmony, unity, devotion, contemplation, is associated with the blue of the sky and water, mysticism and transcendence, symbolizes the truth and mystery of divine incomprehensibility" ^{[1, pp. 12-13]}. Belova D. N. notes that the perception of blue color changes when its tonality changes. If the blue color becomes darker, it begins to cause a feeling of sadness, while lighter shades cause a feeling of peace and even indifference. Most contemporaries associate blue and light blue with a kind of dream or illusion. This is expressed in steady turns, such as "blue dream", "blue fog", "blue bird", "blue distances" and the like.

It is the illusory perception of shades of blue and blue that gradually begins to dominate the perception of the story told by the ruler as the dominant color shades in the coloristic solution of this episode increase (Fig. 4, 5).

    Figure 4. A frame from the movie "Hero". Blue and blue in the pictorial solution of the frame.

 Figure 5. A frame from the movie "Hero". Shades of blue and light blue in the color scheme of the film. 

The whole version of events presented by the future emperor is a story of revenge and a desire to overthrow an undesirable ruler. Nameless refutes this course of events and tells a new story, which he pretends to be the truth. There are facts unknown to anyone. Broken Sword abandoned the idea of killing the ruler. He came to the conclusion that only a strong and powerful leader can unite the disparate howling kingdoms into a single strong empire, which would stop internecine wars and conflicts.

The third version of the events, again narrated by the Nameless, is depicted in white tones. The hero gives this version as true. The white color scheme evokes a sense of trust in the story in the first minutes. However, the white color scheme is not perceived unambiguously.

White color in the culture of many peoples of the world is associated with something bright and truthful. "White symbolizes purity, peace, chastity, light, wisdom, innocence and truth." For example, Abakumova E. V. writes that sacred animals in Greece, Rome, the Celts and the Germans were white, and the mythical Unicorn was white. "The white lily is a symbol of the Virgin Mary and the French royal house; the white rose symbolizes chastity.... In the church, white means purity, truth, moderation. White is the color of baptism and communion, the holidays of Christmas, Easter and Ascension" ^{[16, pp. 151-152]}.

At the same time, in the East, the perception of white is somewhat different. Bazarova A. N. notes that "white in Chinese culture has always been the color of mourning." The author draws attention to the fact that according to the Chinese ancient cosmological model, white is "an exhausted, bloodless color that represents death."  For this reason, in ancient China, after the funeral of close people, his relatives wore white mourning ^{[10, p. 44]}.

Analyzing the color symbolism of China, E. A. Polyakova writes that the white color "embodies the West – a place where chaos and the death of all living things reign. This color is contradictory: it indicates a state – cold ("hot soup will easily melt white snow"), denotes one of the elements – metal (a symbol of the beginning decline from Yang to Yin) and is associated simultaneously with treachery and purity" ^{[13, p. 90]}.

Due to the peculiarities of the perception of white, as in previous episodes, when viewing a fragment with a dominant white, there is a rethinking of what was seen. The white color scheme after aggressively red and cold blue-blue outflows is perceived positively in the first minutes of the fragment and a feeling of a successful resolution of the conflict is created.

 The retrospective, the prehistory of events also adds credibility to the story. This episode is outlined in shades of green.  There is a certain illusion of authenticity, the viewer, after all the expression of the color scheme and the abundance of artistic details shown in close-up, feels a sense of understanding of the events taking place (Fig. 6). 

   Figure 6. A frame from the movie "Hero". Green color scheme.

The fragment, made in shades of green, is completed, and the viewer is again immersed in the story depicted with the dominant white. Anxiety begins to grow, as individual details gradually become alarming.  Mainly, such emotions are caused by white clothes against the background of yellow mountains and sands (Fig. 7).

                Figure 7. A frame from the movie "Hero". Heroes in white clothes.  

 Since none of the previously described versions of events was authentic, the viewer no longer understands which information to trust and which not. The white color scheme evokes a sense of authenticity, but at the same time doubts arise. White is also the color of death. For the Russian viewer, white color, as a rule, is not associated with thoughts of death. But the white clothes of the heroes contrast with the color of the mountains and sand. This contrast causes more and more tension in the perception of what is seen. And this feeling is eventually justified: all the heroes die, and quite tragically. Only the ruler remains. 

ConclusionMany frames of the film can be considered a work of visual art.

The intra-frame composition is constructed in various ways and thought out to the details. Each piece of clothing and the scenery of the mise-en-scene are thought out in terms of their possible visual perception. Analyzing the idea and artistic solution of Zhang Yimou's film "Hero", it should be noted that individual scenes and elements of the coloristic solution are perceived ambiguously by the viewer. For example, dancing with swords, arrows falling in a stream, flying warriors, an overabundance of certain color shades. It is necessary to understand these fragments taking into account the genre of the painting. The director does not pretend to be historical. This is a parable, therefore it requires allegorical perception, hence the conventionality in the depiction of duels and color symbolism.

 Despite the ambivalence of the perception of color shades, it is the coloristic solution of individual episodes that fills each fragment with conceptual content, so color becomes the leading semantic concept of Zhang Yimou's film.