The idea of truth in Russian, French and Chinese languages and cultures

The categories of truth, true, as well as false, are interpreted differently throughout the development of European civilization by representatives of various philosophical currents ^[12],[15]: one way or another, but truth is knowledge, and the only question is who can possess it and in what form – God, man or nature. The idea of the knowability/unknowability of the world, directly adjacent to the ideas of the specificity of truth, since antiquity divides not only philosophers, but also ordinary citizens into two camps: some believe that they know or can know the truth about something, others are sure that there is no truth and the truth is the subject of special knowledge. From this last consideration, a mythology arose in modern civilization, representing scientific cognition as a process of searching for truth, structured, described step by step, as if verified over the centuries and verified with cognitive techniques posing as cognitive ideals. Deduction, induction, experiment, statistics, extrapolation, and so on are all techniques of the modern scientific method, which today are dogmas that are not subject to discussion. This view of things is somehow connected with our (European in the broad sense of the word) ideas about the nature of the truth, closed, hidden and subject to detection only with the help of such a special scalpel (or can opener).

We will not find the concept of "lie" in any philosophical or mythological encyclopedia. This is very surprising, because if the concept of truth is presented, it is logical to imagine the concept of a lie. This gap is filled by logical dictionaries ^[13], where truth and falsity represent opposite categories, bringing this pair to the level of binary opposition and elevating it to the rank of an ancient twin opposition. At the same time, it is obvious that these concepts do not act independently in this binary system, as well as the continuation of the global members of the opposition – good and evil. So, the truth clearly lies in the plane of good, and a lie, even at the figurative level associated with distortion, a crooked mirror, lies in the plane of evil (recall that evil is often associated in cultures with curvature).

Let's consider the Russian concepts of truth, truth/lie, deception, describing the conceptual nest we are talking about.

Truth – reliable knowledge, objective knowledge, accessible not to man, but only to the highest principle, is connected with the Old Slavonic truth, which denoted truth, loyalty, legality. In the "Sudebnik" of 1497, the code of the Russian state, the word truth occurs in the meaning of "basic, interest-free capital", derived from true - genuine, effective, real. This is the essence, the quintessence of the Russian concept of "truth": truth is what is, what can be presented, has already been noted in Dahl. Dahl comments on this meaning as follows: truth is cash, that is, not imaginary, circulating or debt wealth, but true, cash.

Dahl notes another curious fact: the truth, according to him, is "everything that is authentic is exactly true, now the truth also answers this word, although it is more correct to understand truthfulness by the word truth." The truth, he explains, is from the earth, and the truth is from heaven.

That is, if we compare the reality described by Dahl, it fundamentally does not coincide with today's, because today it is the truth that is the highest, heavenly knowledge, and the truth, as we will see, is what is visible and known to mortal people.

This is fully confirmed by a modern researcher, a well-known linguist N. D. Arutyunova: "The concept of truth opposes the ideal and material worlds, using the following signs: eternal/temporary (abiding/transitory), unchangeable/changeable (firmament and slough), unobservable/observable (noumenon and phenomenon), authentic and imaginary.

The first – unmarked members of this opposition form the concept of truth... Truth is static. It exists in eternity. It is abstracted from the axes of time and space" ^[1]. In relation to the definition given by Vladimir Dahl, only the last opposition (genuine/imaginary) is true, and everything else could well be attributed, if we talk about "his" reality, to the truth, which for centuries was considered the highest and heavenly essence, being the result of the correct, righteous judgment of God.

In the "Pigeon Book" (XII-XV century) we read: "It's not two animals gathered, not two fierce ones gathered: This is true with a Crooked one. Between them they fought and fought. The truth wants to overcome the Crooked. The truth is a crooked argument. The truth went to heaven... And the crookedness went all over the whole earth with us." From this text we see that for many centuries, it was the Truth that was the celestial, and not the truth at all.

Such a change in the distribution of the connotation of "higher / not higher" seems to us quite understandable and connected with the idea of the highest in previous eras and at the present time. In the pre-nationalist era, the supreme was associated with a strong state, headed by a Sovereign God ^[11], one of whose main functions is to judge and punish (to create the supreme court). In the modern era, which is presented as an eclectic mix of the mystical and rational, the higher is associated as an inventory of absolutes, static and unchangeable, a list of incomprehensible axioms and laws, and not at all as a kind of state headed by a king-monarch-emperor-god.

But the determination of the truth remained the prerogative of the court (the witness, like the defendant, swear to "tell the truth and only the truth"), whose highest goal is still to determine the truth. This last used context is brought to the description of the differences between the concepts of truth and truth in the modern Russian mentality, which are also convincingly described in one of N. D. Arutyunova's remarkable articles "Truth: Background and Connotations" ^[2]. We join the analysis presented in the paper, the main theses of which are as follows:

1. In the Russian language, the concept of truth is distributed between two words - truth and truth.

2. The separation of truth and truth is connected with the fundamental difference in the nature of the correlative worlds, one of which belongs to the real, the other to the ideal plan.

3. Truth is eternal and unchangeable, and this implies its identity with itself.

4. Truth is spoken of in terms of religion and in terms of law. Religious truth is achieved by revelation, epistemic - by discovery, judicial - by disclosure. There are two ideas about truth - religious and epistemic.

5. The projection of the divine world on the life and speech activity of people is called the word truth. Truth is a reflected truth, refracted in an infinite number of facets of life. We say the truth of life, the truth of life, but not * the truth of life. The truth concerns only the animate world.

6. The truth is one, the truth is multiple and everyone has their own. The characteristics of a person easily pass to the truth (barefoot truth, our truth smells of vodka, etc.)

7. The truth is associated with the weakest, with the disadvantaged (you can say the truth of the people, but not the truth of the nobility). "For the truth!" is the motto of the rebels, defenders of the foundations are fighting under other slogans. The truth turns "enemies against" into "enemies for". The priests of religion and science serve the truth, the truth is the fighters and defenders of the oppressed. The element of truth is the struggle of the spirit, the element of truth is the social struggle.

8. The truth pulls over not only the characteristics of a person, but his life (soldier's truth, painful truth), but this is possible only in the case of their negative assessments.

In Russian , the word truth has the following compatibility:

To find, to discover, to reach, to comprehend, to know, to know, to confirm, to understand the truth; the light of truth, the truth illuminates, the truth is born in a dispute;

To get to the truth, to be imbued with the truth; searching, searching for the truth;

The truth is hidden, is somewhere, is revealed to someone; old, capital, hackneyed, abc, banal, vulgar, annoying, stuck in the teeth, flat, mediocre, etc. truth.

From the above compatibility, two real connotations of the concept of "truth" are clearly visible:

1.      Treasure (search, dig, find, open, and so on) – hence the image of discovery

2.      Book, textbook, Holy Scripture, teacher (old, uppercase, flat), etc.

The first connotation of "treasure" has a rich source in Indo-European mythologies associated with the motive of the concealment of knowledge (Adam and Eve, King Oedipus, and so on learned what they should not have learned, for which they were punished). The motive of persecution of a person for self-willed comprehension of the truth is associated by some researchers with the motive of usurpation by a person of what is not reported to him in a broader context. Thus, in his "Comparative Dictionary of Mythological Symbolism in Indo-European languages", M. M. Makovsky notes the connection of words with the meaning of "truth" with words having phallic meaning, that is, with the oldest layer of beliefs equating sexual and sacred.

We will analyze this image in more detail later in the chapter devoted to the main mental categories, and now we will only note the fact that in figurative terms, the concept of truth is connected in the same way as many words from the group describing the cognitive field.

The second connotation is a book, a textbook, tied to the education system, replication of the accepted set of regulations. The immutability of "practical truths" often causes a negative assessment of a person, the repetition of the same thing is associated with the image of chewing – the action is monotonous and, if excessive, unpleasant: everything imposed in the teeth is superfluous and boring.  "Beaten" in the meaning of "worn out" (cf. beaten heels), as well as flat truth emphasize the idea of aging present in the linguistic consciousness, the weariness of truth with time, which contradicts its philosophical interpretation. Negative-evaluative adjectives combined with the word "truth" reveal a person's ambivalent attitude to the unchangeable – addiction, satiety, disgust, but also calmness, confidence. Some signs of the truth "annoying, incompetent" are clearly transferred to her from the image of the teacher – he is incompetent, annoying, annoying, flat and so on.

The light of truth means its location above, in the sky, attributing to it the divine essence.

The expression "truth is born in dispute" is obviously a borrowing from the European word circulation, which in turn drew this maxim from ancient authors.

The word "truth" is etymologically connected with the word law (Fasmer, Dal), with the administration of justice, with honesty and justice. Dahl points to the special meaning of the word "truth", which meant "a fee for calling a witness for questioning", and also defined it as "the truth in fact, ... in justice, in justice". It is important for us that the word "truth" is close to the word right, originally, in contrast to the concept of left, which meant strong (compare – right hand), correct, straight. Such associations have, as we have already said, Indo–European origins, finding responses in the "Rig Veda", in the ancient Greek pre-law in the form of the opposition of two truths - two Dikes, reflected in the ancient Greek tragedy (*).

The word "truth" in Russian has the following compatibility:

The truth of life, the vital truth;

Everyone has their own truth; Sermyazhnaya, soldier, peasant, worker, etc. truth; The highest, true truth; The truth smells of sweat, vodka, remorse, etc. The voice of truth, to hear the voice of truth; To tell, to reveal the truth;

Fix the court, mock the truth, trample the truth into the mud, strangle the truth, etc. To seek the truth, to live with your truth;

To face the truth, the truth stings your eyes; To fight for the truth, to defend, to defend the truth, to sacrifice yourself or anything in the name of the truth; The truth triumphs, wins;

Bitter, painful, cruel, tragic, sad, disappointing, etc.

From the above compatibility we see that the truth in the Russian language is thought of as:

1. A girl from the bottom. This concept is personified in the female image, everyone (not everyone) has her own, everyone lives with their own truth, she is endowed with a voice, is weak and needs protection, in the fight for her, can embellish and dress up. There are many contexts in the compatibility of this word, which develops the image of an unfairly oppressed girl from the bottom, for whom they are fighting, standing up.

2. The second obvious connotation is a liquid that has a bitter taste. In this sense, the bitter truth is often described in language as a medicine that must be taken for a beneficial purpose. In the same stereotype lies "to eat the truth, to eat the fundamental truths." The adjective "pure" associates the truth with substances in which impurities are usually present.

3. A luminary that, as a rule, shines on the oppressed – with a nuance that distinguishes this concept from the concept of "truth", which shines with eternal divine light.

Representation of the concept of "truth" in French language and culture

The French word la verit? comes from the Latin verita, veritatis, meaning "truth, reality, the laws of law." This is an old borrowing, however, the modern form of this word was established only in the Renaissance. Since the end of the tenth century, this word denoted an opinion corresponding to the real state of things and opposed erreur. Then the word developed a more general meaning: the correspondence of an idea to an object, a story to a fact, a word of thought. Since the end of the XV century, verit? has been used with the general meaning of "reality". Since the XVIII century, another one has been added to the described meaning: a sincere retelling of what a person has seen, knows ^[6].

The word verit? in modern language means a truthful retelling of reality, or a thought corresponding to reality. Thus, verit? is not reality itself, even if it is the highest, as it is the case in Russian, but a human function, the equivalent of truth ^[4].

The word verit? is so used in modern French ^[19]:

Chercher, pr?tendre, poss?der, reveler, d?couvrir, d?meler, ?gager, discerner, retablir, conf?sser, avouer, reconnaitre, traduire, d?fendre, illustrer, propager la v?rit?;

Voiler, farder, d?guiser, cacher, saisir, aimer, craindre, avoir peur de, ?couter, oublier la verit?;

Donner une contortion a la verit?, ?corcher la verit?;

Du choc des id?es jaillit la verit?; Etre epris, penetre de verit?;

La verit? apparait, eclate, offense, blesse, se trouve; dire ses quatre verit?s;

Les verit?s absolus supposent un Etre absolu comme elles; Amour, besoin, soucis de verit?;

Parcelle de verit?; La verit? imparfate et privisoire;

La verit? grosse, utile, profonde, incontestable, flagrante, patente, sencible, palpable, nue, vieille, connue.

The word la verit? is included in the following synonymous series: lumiere, verbe, lucidite, sincere, exactitude, justesse, valeur, vrassemblance, certitude, conviction.

From the above compatibility, we see that verit? in French has many connotations. Among them , the main ones are the following:

1. Verit? as a text. It can be translated, illustrated, listened to, spoken to.

2. Verit? as a woman and just an animate being. You can embellish it (apply makeup), dress it up, love it, take care of it, insult it, fear it, hide it, it can be thick and useful, reasonable, tangible, etc.

3. Verit? as a substance hidden or mixed with a foreign substance: it can be separated, detected, it can have a particle, etc.

 4. Verit? is like a tree: it can be skinned and twisted.

 5. Verit? is like a liquid: it can spray like a jet of water from a clash of ideas, it can be soaked.

The synonymous series, which includes verit?, shows us that it is thought through the subjective mental characteristics of a person and is connected primarily with his mind and desire to speak sincerely.

The compatibility of the word verit? shows us that this concept has a positive connotation, is often found with reduced verbs and adjectives (grosse, farder), characterizes the mundane human hypostasis (verit? imparfaite et provisoire), is associated with communication, social life, but not struggle, is perceived by a person as an external object or character, with whom, however, is not identified in any way. It should also be noted that the image described by Cesare Ripo apparently characterizes the highest philosophical and theological view of verit?, reflecting only fragments of everyday figurative concretization. Contexts personifying verit? as an aggressive force are few, the French truth can hurt and offend, but there has been no further development of the "militant" image of verit?. There is also the compatibility of this word with verbs, identifying it with a luminary (appears, illuminates), but these are also more rudiments of a once-existing image, rather than an integral, comprehended as a living image within the framework of the modern linguistic consciousness of native French speakers.

The representation of the concept of "truth", through the subjective reflection of reality as opposed to the objective in the French language is expressed blurrily. The Russian expression "everyone has their own truth" is preferably translated as "Chacun a ses raisons" – everyone has their own reasons. You can also say "A chacun sa verit?", but the first version of the translation is much more frequent and preferable.

Representation of the concept of "truth" in Chinese language and culture

The key lexeme of the semantic field of the concept of "truth" is ? l?. For a better understanding of the topic, we will turn to the linguoculturological method, conducting a semantic analysis of lexemes isolated from the "Frequency Dictionary of the modern Chinese language" ^[20]. Examples of compatibility are mainly taken from various dictionary sources ^{[21],[22],[23],[3]}, and also from the system of the language corpus of the Center for Chinese Linguistics of Peking University ^[20].

l? is a hieroglyph of the phonetic category, where the key of the w?ng denoted jade, and the right part of ? l?, in addition to the phonetic function, denoted a workshop; the original meaning of the hieroglyph was "processing ore into jade" ^{[27, p. 20]}.

During the dynasties of the Northern Song (960-1127) and the Southern Song (1128-1279), the neo-Confucianism appeared, which has 3 names: s?ngxu? "Song teaching", l?xu? "Li teaching", d?oxu? "Tao teaching". Despite the fact that they meant the same thing, the emphasis in them was on different things. In the first version, the name appeared due to the time of the emergence of this philosophical trend and had a generalizing character. In the second and third titles, the bias is made on the difference in the content of philosophical opinion: in the "teaching of Li" it was believed that "?" L? is an eternal spiritual essence existing before the Universe, and everything in the world can be derived only from "?" L?; in the "teaching of Tao" it was believed that subjective consciousness there is a source of everything in the derivative world. Thus, we see that ? l? has always had mobility, this is how the original form changes, and only if we find this beginning, then we can know the truth in an infinitely changing world. This point of view will be traced in all lexemes, which will be described below.

To refer to the concept of "truth" we can distinguish the following synonymic row: zh?nl?, d?ol?, ti?nl?.

I. ? zh?n is a hieroglyph of an ideographic category consisting of three elements, where the upper part denotes a person, the middle part denotes eyes, and the lower part denotes the instrument with which the immortal saint ascended to heaven. Therefore, the initial meaning of the hieroglyph was "a man who became a celestial being" ^{[25, p. 442]}, then it began to mean "an entity corresponding to objective facts" ^[26]. From the etymology, a clear connection with Taoist culture is visible: judging by Taoist philosophy, a person has two ways of improving and achieving immortality – external alchemy and internal alchemy, where in the first a person attains eternal life by taking an immortality pill, and in the second the human body becomes a place of extraction, where the bodily essence is Jing, Qi and Shen play the main role. The etymology of this lexeme just shows a way of improvement through internal alchemy, where a person not only attains immortality, but also learns the essence of the earth and joins the face of saints, becoming a "real person" (literally "a real person").

The combination of these lexemes ? zh?n and ? l? forms the most frequent word for truth in the Chinese language – zh?nl? ^[20]. Thus, initially in Chinese culture, truth was presented as the quintessence of the methods of those who achieved absolute perfection through knowledge and became a saint. This motif, where the thoughts of wise elders are associated with the truth, has long been rooted in Chinese culture. As an example, we can take the concept of m?j?, which is often found in Chinese classical literature. This is a book in which all the secrets of any martial art are written, and a person can learn the truth of martial art only after reading such books, and to know it himself is almost incredible. This motif confirms the importance and respect of the Chinese for traditions and ancient wisdom, which is still relevant.

It is important to note that in Chinese, truth is a measurable concept, it can be combined with the counting word tiao, which is combined to denote long-lasting phenomena. This once again points to two features of the representation of truth in the Chinese language picture of the world:

1. More than one truth is allowed.

2. The knowledge of the truth for the Chinese is always a process.

Next, we turn to the compatibility of this token to identify its real connotation: ji?ny?n zh?nl? "test of truth", chu?nb? zh?nl? to "spread the truth", zhu?qi? zh?nl? "chase the truth", f?xi?n zh?nl? "discover the truth", ji?j?n zh?nl? "closer to truth", d?od? zh?nl? "to reach the truth," ji?nd?o zh?nl? "meet the truth", d?d?o zh?nl? "to the truth," z?nzh?ng zh?nl? "respect the truth", y?nch? zh?nl? "show the truth", bi?om?ng zh?nl?"to Express the truth," zhu?x?n zh?nl? "follow the truth", x?nqi? zh?nl? "seek the truth", k?oy?n zh?nl? "experience the truth", p?ndu?n zh?nl? "estimate the truth", ji?nx?n zh?nl? "believe in truth", r?nsh? zh?nl? "know the truth", x?ngr?ng zh?nl? "to describe the truth," ch?ngr?n zh?nl? "admit the truth", xi?nsh?n y? zh?nl? "devote yourself to the truth", ji?nch? zh?nl? "stick of truth", x?ny?ng zh?nl? "to confess the truth," qi?su? zh?nl? "seek the truth", ?i zh?nl? "love the truth", zh?och? zh?nl? "discover the truth", zh?ngw? zh?nl? to "learn the truth" ji?ng zh?nl? "to speak the truth", ch?ngxi?n zh?nl? "show the truth", qi?d? zh?nl? "seek the truth", t?nsu? zh?nl? "search for truth", zh?ngq? zh?nl? "to fight for the truth," k?sh?u zh?nl? "save the truth," w?ch? zh?nl? "to understand the truth", r?nsh? zh?nl? "meet the truth", ji?ng sh?ngm?ng xi?ng?i zh?nl? "to devote life to truth" xu?nchu?n zh?nl? to "spread the truth", t?nqi? zh?nl? "to search for the truth," hu?iy? zh?nl? "to doubt the truth", h?nw?i zh?nl? "protect the truth", x?nzh?o zh?nl? "seek the truth", z?nx?n zh?nl? "follow the truth", t?ol?n zh?nl? "speak the truth", xu?ny?ng zh?nl? "to promote the truth," zhu?c?ng zh?nl? "walking in the footsteps of truth" l?ngw? zh?nl? "to realize the truth", zh?ngsh? zh?nl? "to ascertain the truth," ji?sh? zh?nl? "uncover the truth", ch?ngsh?ng zh?nl? to "worship in truth", f?zh?n zh?nl? "to develop the true" w?if?n zh?nl? "contradict truth", w?ib?i zh?nl? "to go against the truth."

From the given compatibility we see that zh?nl? has the following real connotation:

1. Gold. This subject, as it is possible to obtain physically, people often say about him, and when they did, they fight for possession that emphasizes its jewel: t?ol?n zh?nl? "speak the truth", qi?d? zh?nl? "seek the truth", zhu?qi? zh?nl? "chase the truth", zh?ngw? zh?nl? "master of truth", etc. However, this subject is often fake, people doubt its purity and originality. When processing more than 10 thousand examples from the language corpus, it was found that the combination of "checking the truth" was most often repeated, and a large number of synonymous series were also found, which show the importance of checking the authenticity of the subject. In the Chinese language there is a phraseology Zh Zh?nj?n b?p? hu? li?n "real gold is not afraid of fire": if you melt gold, its color and essence will not change in any way. In the Chinese worldview, the truth is very similar to gold in the motive of authenticity, since it does not matter how to prove the truth wrong: if it is valid, it will be able to withstand any tests.

2. Utopia. This is a place, since a person can reach it, but it is not easy to find it, because only a few people have reached and seen this place, but people still believe in its existence and try to get closer to it: d?od? zh?nl? "to reach the truth", ? ji?j?n zh?nl? "to get closer to the truth", etc. In Chinese culture, the motif of paradise on earth is very common, where all people live happily, which is shown not only in literary works (for example, in the story of the Chinese poet of the Eastern Jin dynasty Tao Yuanming "" t?ohu?yu?n j? "Peach Spring"), but also in Chinese social philosophy, where since antiquity people have tried To achieve an ideal society is the "Great Harmony". Truth by its nature is also the highest degree of knowledge, which is virtually impossible to achieve, which led to such a parallel in the Chinese consciousness.

3. An exotic animal. This creature, which is very rare, as people looking for him, and when he finds out that they used all the ways to lure him out, in order to master and make your own: y?nch? zh?nl? "show the truth", x?nzh?o zh?nl? "seek the truth", etc. In this case the truth is presented as a rare, almost mythical beast, and combinations emphasize the complexity of its discovery.

4. A great leader. He is a majestic man, people often talk about him, everyone knows him, the people love, respect and worship him, believe that even meeting him is an honor: ?i zh?nl? "love the truth", ch?ngsh?ng zh?nl? to"worship in truth", z?nzh?ng zh?nl? "respect the truth", zhu?c?ng zh?nl? "walking in the footsteps of truth", etc., If necessary, to protect its people are willing to devote life, people loyal to him and follow him without hesitation. Of course, there are people who go against this person, but this is wrong and is always described only with a negative connotation. There is a clear image of the great Chinese emperor, who is considered the son of heaven, his orders and desires are the law, and the people consider them to be the truth.

5. The idea. It is an abstract concept, as it appears through awareness and understanding; and when the person received the fruit of our thoughts, then distributes it, describing and telling it to others: f?zh?n zh?nl? "to develop the true" w?ch? zh?nl? "to understand the truth", p?ndu?n zh?nl? "estimate the truth", etc. If not together, then people will defend their point of view, debating, and ready for his mind to give his life. But it is also simply distributed among the people, and over time it develops and takes on a new image. This perception is strongly connected with the idea of philosophy in Chinese culture. As mentioned above, there can be a large number of truths in the Chinese worldview, and each philosophical school adheres to its own idea, which it considers to be the truth.

II. The d?o hieroglyph appeared in the most ancient Chinese jiaguwen script and in its original version consisted of two parts, where one denoted a road and the other denoted a person, so the original meaning of the hieroglyph was "a man walking on the road" ^{[27, p. 133]}. Tao is the most important concept in Chinese philosophy, denoting the orbit or trajectory of everything, including immaterial. The philosopher Lao Tzu, in the fundamental treatise of the Taoist teaching "Tao te Ching", using the tao, was able to describe the origin of everything and find its regularity: "D ao sh?ng y?, y? sh?ng yr, yr sh?ng s?n, s?n sh?ng w?nw?. "The Tao gives birth to One, One gives birth to Two, Two gives birth to Three, Three gives birth to everything" ^{[28, p. 182]}. If we use the words from the treatise "I Ching", then the tao means w?j? "the beginning of all beginnings" ^[29], which means a state of primordial chaos, and w?j? turns into t?ij? "the great limit" ^[29], and then two energies are released from t?ij? – Yin and Yang. As another representative of the Taoist philosophy, z hu?ng z? Chuang Ji, said: """"" ?R y? y? w?i s?n "Two and One together become Three" ^[30], that is, the energy of Yin and Yang cannot exist without each other; if there is good, then there is necessarily evil, and the energy that appears When they collide, it will be called ch?ngq?, and these three energies are capable of generating everything. Thus, it can be seen that the tao is the most primordial state of everything, which contributes to the endless movement and changes of everything. In this case, in the meaning of the lexeme truth, a bias will be made on substance, on what was originally with the subject, and the fact of movement will also be emphasized, where the knowledge of truth is described as a process.

In modern Chinese, in addition to the truth, the word can still have the meaning of "reason" or "approach", since when used it implies a strong author's subjectivity, which can even be understood as a point of view or an opinion held by someone.

If you look at the compatibility of this token, then we will have the following picture: ji?ngt?u d?ol? "exhaustively to state the truth," m?ngb?i d?ol? "to understand the truth," y?u d?ol? "have the truth", b?d?ng d?ol? "do not understand the truth," w?ch? d?ol? "to realize the truth", shu?ch? d?ol? "to bring out the truth", t?hu? d?ol? "feel the truth", ji?ng d?ol? "to talk about the truth" d?ng d?ol? "to understand the truth", y?ng d?ol? "use the truth", d?ch? d?ol? "to make true", qi?d? d?ol? "seek the truth", xi?ngx?n d?ol? "believe in truth", zh?ngm?ng d?ol? "to prove the truth."

It is easy to notice that in this case the motive of communication is important: if a person can convince the interlocutor, then his truth will be considered more correct, and in this case the truth is no longer what is really right, but may be what the majority trusts.

III. The concept of "sky" is an important component of Chinese culture and Confucianism. This concept has already been described in our article "The Idea of fate in Russian, French and Chinese cultures", which confirms the belief of the Chinese not in any special god, but in an abstract "heaven", whose orders cannot be violated ^{[5, p. 46]}. In neo-Confucianism, the ? ti?nl? had a special meaning, which was much talked about by the philosopher Cheng Hao, who was the first to suggest designating the ? ti?nl? as a category of neo-Confucianism. If we turn to the treatise "The Book left as a legacy by Messrs. Cheng of Henan", we can distinguish the following meanings of the philosophical category: ? ti?nl?:

1. ti?nl? is the source of all things in the universe, where everything came from one unity ^{[31, p. 133]}.

2. The hierarchical order of superiority and subordination was established at the birth of heaven and earth, which cannot be changed ^{[31, p. 137]}.

3. ti?nl? is a fixed social ethics and moral norms, which is also always correct ^{[31, p. 138]}.

4. "ti?nl? has the same meaning as "fate": if a person has known his fate, then he has known the whole truth ^{[5, pp. 45-46],[31, p. 48]}.

5. The ? ti?nl? is the opposite of the "human passions", and there can be only one truth, which is unquestionable ^[31].

Here we see that the Confucian idea of truth has become very different from the original Taoist one: it began to be not only about the unity of nature and the origin of being, but also to have a socio-political character associated with hierarchy and social ethics. It can be said that even the whole meaning of philosophy has begun to shift from the problem of "heaven-man" to the state of "man-man", which is not only important, but fundamental for Chinese society.

In addition to the above lexemes, the Chinese language has the lexeme zh?nd?. This word is a semantic borrowing of the word param?rtha from Hindi, which in Buddhism means the highest truth. It can be suggested that this word took root thanks to the Buddhist monk Paramartha, whose Chinese name is zh?nd?. He is one of the founders of the practice of translating Buddhist texts into Chinese, since, according to the language corpus, it was from the 6th century, when this monk began his activity in China, that this word began to be used.

If you look in the compatibility of the token zh?nd?, you notice the lack of practical combinations of verbs: in most cases the word is used in the form of "the truth of something", for example, de gu?nl? zh?nd? "truth management", y?zh?u de zh?nd? "the truth of the universe," r?nsh?ng de zh?nd? "truth of life", etc. Despite the highly popular usage in the modern Chinese language, the word is associated only with the original Buddhist value, which is the ultimate truth of any activity. It could not get a deeper development in the Chinese language picture of the world.

In the Chinese naive picture of the world, there is also an idea of truth, reflected by the lexeme zh?nxi?ng, which is the same root as zh?nl?.

xi?ng is a hieroglyph of the ideographic category, which, from the Jiaguwen script to the modern Chinese language, consists of two one-component hieroglyphs: ? m? and ? m?, where ? m? had the meaning of a tree, and ? m? had the meaning of an eye. This combination is associated with the work of carpenters in Chinese culture, where the choice of wood is the most important stage. Therefore, before processing the tree, it is necessary to conduct a thorough observation, inspect it to find the best raw materials. Thus, the original meaning of the word was "carefully observe" ^{[27, p. 280]}.

When combined into the concept of zh?nxi?ng, it will also denote a process where a person finds material reality through search, something that is simple for a person's consciousness. It includes all aspects of reality that reflect the real state of things. To identify a more specific nature, refer to compatibility tokens: w?iq? zh?nxi?ng"distort the truth", ji?sh? zh?nxi?ng "to find out the truth," y?ng?i zh?nxi?ng "to cover up the truth," zh?b? zh?nxi?ng"to block the truth," m?ngb?i zh?nxi?ng "to understand the truth," li?oji? zh?nxi?ng "the truth", shu?m?ng zh?nxi?ng "to explain the truth," zh?d?o zh?nxi?ng "know the truth", y?nm?n zh?nxi?ng "hide the truth" d?ngch? zh?nxi?ng "to penetrate the essence of truth", k?nd?o zh?nxi?ng "see the truth", x?nzh?o zh?nxi?ng "seek the truth", zh?ngw? zh?nxi?ng "to learn the truth," d?d?o zh?nxi?ng "to the truth," ji?j?n zh?nxi?ng"closer to truth", f?xi?n zh?nxi?ng "find the truth", yu?nl? zh?nxi?ng "to depart from the truth," zhu?qi? zh?nxi?ng "chase the truth".

It is easy to notice that the compatibility with the component of the truth is divided into 2 parts: 1. An attempt to hide the truth and put a lie in its place. 2. Find the hidden truth. Also, the following combinations are often found in the language corpus: su?w?i zh?nxi?ng "the so-called truth" or x x?ji? de zh?nxi?ng "false truth". To identify the reasons for this view, it is necessary to turn to the concept of "power", which occurs in different contexts, which dominates the truth.

The people doubt the truth, which is given by the upper class through the bureaucratic system, because officials can replace the truth with a lie for their own benefit, and the only way to find the real truth is through the search and observation of the person himself, and not from the words of others. Therefore, in Chinese culture it is considered that the truth that other people have said is often a lie, and only what a person saw with his own eyes can be reality, which is confirmed by the following proverb: , ?rt?ng w?i x? y?nji?n w?i sh? "do not believe other people's speeches, but believe your own eyes."

Let's look at the name of the Soviet newspaper "Pravda", which is translated into Chinese as "" zh?nl? b?o (the direct translation should have been "newspaper "Truth""). If the translation used the word zh?nxi?ng, then the content of the newspaper would have to reveal the reality of something, for example, a detective, investigation, court case, etc., which absolutely did not fit the meaning that was implied by the original Russian name. This emphasizes that "" zh?nl? and "" zh?nxi?ng can be considered synonymous for the Russian concepts of "truth" and "truth", but have differences in cultural code.

Conclusions

The Russian language picture in this area clearly demonstrates the division of the conceptual field into upper and lower, higher and earthly. The idea of a heavenly life, where good and evil, rather than a pantheon of gods, are at work, shows the connection of the Russian consciousness in this area with the Christian, not pagan interpretation of the world. However, pagan contexts, both Slavic and pan–European, are present in the figurative structure of this concept. The division of the field of knowledge into higher and lower, into truth and truth, the idea of man's blindness before higher knowledge, are all interpretations of biblical images, a reflection of its messages.

The evolution of the image of truth, which gave us the phenomenon of its meaning in the twentieth century, is one of the consequences of the influence on the mass consciousness of the socio–cultural meaning, which we called "communism" in chapter two. The construction of the meaning and the allegories accompanied by it seems transparent: the truth is that the people are oppressed, although the "upper classes" deceive the people and humiliate them, falsely convincing them that in fact they care about their welfare. The idea of the falsity of power, the manipulativeness of power is organically present in the Russian consciousness, placing the entire political structure in the coordinate system of "truth" and "lie". The works of Karl Marx, V. I. Lenin, L. D. Trotsky are filled with images of the falsity of power and images of truth, which is both a tool in the fight against the old order and its goal.

Having conducted our research, we can assume that this model has proved effective within the framework of the European semantic and metaphorical system precisely because of the connection between lies and evil, which we discussed in this chapter. The only figurative conflict that turned out to be present in this figurative-conceptual space is the naming of revolutionaries fighting for the truth as leftists, that is, from the point of view of an active and relevant myth, as non-rightists. Many people know the explanation of this fact associated with the seating of members of Parliament in accordance with their views at a meeting of the National Assembly in France in 1789 on the right and left hand of the chairman. It is possible to analyze this fact in a variety of ways, we note only in this connection that the association with leftism is still negative and it is obvious that F. M. Dostoevsky's naming of his novel about leftist revolutionaries "Demons" is not accidental from the point of view of the stereotypical hints available in language and thinking.

Being essentially remnants of old myths, old ideological oppositions, both Russian and French concepts describing this binary opposition have preserved much of the ancient symbolism. Images of the sun, the sun, bad water, mud, fabric, thread – all these are universal metaphors that connect the Indo-European figurative and cognitive field into a single global ideological fragment. For example, the image of weaving intrigues as a web covers the entire field, so to speak, of speech and event treachery: reasoning, phrase, text – are woven, consist of threads in which you can get entangled (fetters) or in which to confuse.

The metaphor of the war of two principles: light and darkness, truth and lies, and so on – is also represented in the compatibility of these concepts in two languages and is also archaic. The war of abstract, higher forces precedes the creation of the world and the division of everything into two opposite sexes, and everything that exists is often perceived in mythological systems as the result of global confrontations. From what has been said here, we can conclude that both Russian and French concepts go back to common mythological prototypical ideas associated with the original dualistic opposition, part of which is the opposition, including male and female. It is obvious that these ancient myths continue their life in the modern consciousness, discarding in the thickness of time everything that did not agree well with their logic, in particular the association of truth and cash.

The Chinese picture of the world gives us another vector, where there is a clear division of the concept into two groups, which are difficult to translate specifically into Russian:

I. The first representation is based on the process of clarifying the subject: how a person learns through internal processes what other people are not able to know, and the world that surrounds him becomes different. This idea appeared under the influence of Taoism, where the process of finding the truth is compared with internal alchemy.

In Chinese, the concept of truth can be more precisely expressed in three tokens: zh?nl?, d?ol? and ti?nl?. The first token is associated with the initial state of the object, in this case, finding the truth is finding the outcome. In the second lexeme, the truth is the Tao, which also implies the initial state. However, the lexeme "Zh?nl" was originally associated with the proclamation of the saint to heaven, and in this case the truth that can be known has a special framework and is the only one, and the lexeme "d?ol" directly shows the features of Taoist philosophy, where each person can understand the Tao in a peculiar way and for each person there can be its own truth. Therefore, this token is calculable and is more often translated into Russian as truth. It is connected with the God-given law, which must be observed; this idea comes from Confucianism and is strongly connected with the idea of fate, which began to have a socio-political character and act as an obligatory moral norm for people of that society. It is also important to note the lexeme zh?nd?, which came from Sanskrit under the influence of Buddhism, but it could not take root in Chinese culture and is still used precisely as a representation of truth in Buddhism.

II. The second representation, which is transmitted by the lexeme zh ?nxi ?ng, is connected with other realities. Most often, this is a hidden truth, hidden for the sake of their interests by people who, according to the hierarchical system, are in higher classes. To find such a truth, it is necessary to pay attention not to general facts, but to delve into details where a person can draw his own conclusion, and not listen to others and follow them. This idea has a strong influence in modern times, which is manifested in the weak trust of the people to state notices. 

The generalization of the results obtained can be presented as follows: