The Metaphysical Analysis of the Chinese Taoism of Immortality: Case Study on Continuity and Changes of Ancient Excavated Jade Artifacts

Chzhou Zhenhua ORCID: 0000-0003-2186-9170 PhD in Philosophy Graduate student, Faculty of Philosophy, Faculty of Humanities, Ural Federal University 620078, Russia, Sverdlovsk region, Yekaterinburg, Komsomolskaya str., 70 774853404@qq.com Other publications by this author

IntroductionLife and death are eternal themes in the history of human thought.

Prolongation of life and even immortality are instinctive drives of human beings. The theory of Taoist immortals is a special expression of such thoughts and beliefs. She is closely associated with Yin and Yang, with caring for the living and comforting the dead. This theory implies longevity and foresight, is accepted as a "messenger", directing all living beings and souls to ascend to the Heavenly land ^[1].

Different peoples form forms of cultural expression and systems, guided by their own spiritual metaphysics ^[2]. The discourse on metaphysics in Chinese traditional philosophy is influenced by the thesis "The highest metaphysics is the Tao, the lowest metaphysics are things", as indicated in the book "Yijing Siqi". "Tao", the most important category of ancient Chinese philosophy, means "Higher metaphysics", which has no form of spirituality, intangible and guiding. "Form" has to do with conducting "vessels", which are tangible, concrete, material and phenomenal. The connections between them provide origin, noumena, objects and phenomena.

Thus, "Tao" is the source of the universe, a metaphysical ontology, and "objects" are carriers expressing "Tao", which manifest themselves through various material carriers in the worship of the ancient Chinese people and nature. In the rich material culture of ancient China, jade artifacts not only reflect the desire of the ancient Chinese people for beauty, but also convey a "pure" dialectical method of coexistence of man and nature. This influenced not only the life of the Chinese, but also the spiritual culture of the Chinese ^{[3; 4; 5]}.

It is worth paying attention to the characteristics of the material and shape of various jade products, special attention is paid to the signals and symbols of immortality in Taoism, which convey jade products. Such jade products are not accidental, they reflect ancient household symbols, elements of natural philosophical cosmogenesis and epochal historical events ^[6]. Through the demonstration of jade objects and the transmission of consistent information, the philosophy or metaphysics of Taoism creatively complements reflections on the value and meaning of life and becomes an important resource for the philosophy of the future.

Search results on the academic literature websites CNKI (China) and Web of Science (outside China) showed that nowadays there is a lot of literature about jade culture, as well as a lot of literature about Taoist thought. Nevertheless, there are very few studies related to jade artifacts concerning Taoism. In this regard, this work is designed to fill this gap through new research based on the acceptance of the object as an objective reality.

By comparing jade artifacts found in different regions of China, it is possible to find out how the Chinese understand life, how Taoist philosophy affects people's lives, how jade artifacts themselves eventually turn into works of art filled with Chinese traditional philosophy, and, in general, how people strive for life and its improvement.

1. The theme of "eternal life" and "immortality" of the metaphysical system of Taoism in popular culture The idea of immortality in Taoism originated from ancient Chinese religious beliefs.

She followed certain religious concepts and practices of Fang Xiandao and Huang Laodao. In it, the "Tao" was accepted as the highest faith, there was a belief that people could be immortal and even become Heavenly beings through practice. If we want to understand this idea correctly, we must understand it in the context of the ancient Chinese language, which can increase the depth and accuracy of understanding, since the idea represented by the word "eternal life" in the Chinese context has both symbolic and implicit meaning. The meaning of Han is that people cannot die, so one of its meanings is symbolizing health, and the other is prolonging life.

As a representative of the ancient Greek philosophers, Aristotle put forward the metaphysical theory "The heavenly being is the thought of thought", and Lao Tzu, a representative of Taoism, put forward the metaphysical theory "To do nothing but doing". These theories determine the ontology, fate and development of epistemology, they come from the everyday life of people, and also inspire philosophical thinking of modern people. Through these phenomenal worlds, we must study and test the starting point of thinking and theory in order to respect practice.

According to the theory outlined in Lao Tzu's Tao Te Ching, people have evolved into ideas and life programs, such as "Tao follows nature", "Tao is always inaction, and everything is done", "Tao is born, virtue is born, things take shape and potential for her achievements." This is because everyone respects the Tao and values virtue. "The Tao is respected, virtue is noble, and life is always natural. Therefore, the Tao is born, but virtue is animal. Growth is maintained, shelter is poisoned, and food is canceled. To be born, but not to have, to be, but not to be able to rely on anything, to be raised and not to be killed - this is called Xuande" (from chapters 25, 37, 51 of the book "Tao Te Ching" (Tao Te Ching).

Kai Zheng, a Chinese researcher of Taoist philosophy, summed up "Taoism" as a kind of "metaphysics" – according to an ancient saying, "Metaphysics is called Tao." Including and considering from positions and directions metaphysics of epistemological context, moral metaphysics, aesthetic metaphysics and metaphysics of the sphere, he advocated the study of Taoist metaphysics, starting with material and physics ^{[7; 8; 9; 10]}.

Bone and flesh, life and death, man and ghost – they have different understandings in different cultures, but it embodies the simplest and most common human views on the body and life. In the folklore of ancient China, people created a Taoist theory based on the simplest study and knowledge of heaven, earth and man, and in the process of continuous practice enriched Taoist thought, which gradually developed into Taoism. The naturalistic attitude to life is the most essential core and characteristic that distinguishes Taoism from other religions.

Taoism also provides academic methods, academic perspectives and approaches for scholars in the fields of philosophy, religion and culture to study the ethical life of the Chinese people and the development of the philosophy of culture. Taoism has offered many methods and theories to explain immortality and its attainment. This study examines two directions: Taoism as a religion and Taoism in everyday life.

As a religion, Taoism is based on Taoist thought, considers "Tao" to be the highest faith and is aimed at achieving immortality and saving people. It originated at the end of the Eastern Han Dynasty and has a history dating back more than 1800 years. Taoism pays attention to the immortality of people, and the construction of palaces and Taoist temples.

The Sanqing Temple houses a Celestial Being (and Sanqing's ancestors, including Yuqing Yuanshi Tianzong, Shangqing Lingbao Tianzong and Taiqing Daode Tianzong). This is the highest deity in the world of Taoist immortals. It comes from the earliest and most systematized pedigree "Map of True Spirit and Diligence" (), created by Tao Hongjing (, 456-536, Taoist priest, medical scientist and writer) during the Southern and Northern Dynasties of China. In this book, Tao Hongjing conducted his own systematization of the Celestials and demons, covering not only real people in real life (such as Qin Shihuang, Zhou Wenwang, Lao Tzu, Chuang Tzu, etc.), but also included imaginary persons. The academic community has always believed that this is the lineage of a Taoist Celestial Being that Tao believes in.

The bloodline distributes 700 Celestial Beings recorded in the Tao Ching to 7 levels and reflects the degree of social development of that time. The system (aristocratic gentile system) also reflects the theological views of Tao Hongjing. He not only published books on the subject of immortals, but also put forward a wide range of systems of practical methods aimed at cultivating health and pointing to the path of immortality. An example is his work "Health and Prolongation of Life" ().

These works and research practices laid the historical and realistic foundation of Taoism to protect and promote the idea of immortality.

Taoism in everyday life is an important part of Chinese traditional culture, it has had a great impact on the social life of the Chinese. Over a long history, these influences have gradually integrated into people's daily lives and have become an indispensable part of it.

On the basis of the Taoist thought about the "value of life", since ancient times, the Chinese have formed an understanding and idea of the body and life that is different from other countries of the world. From birth to death, Taoist thoughts about "precious life" and "eternal life" pass through the beginning and death of a person's life. For example, a year after the birth of a child, parents put on a castle-shaped decoration for him during a birthday celebration. The words "one hundred years" and "blessing and happiness" imply that the new life will be healthy, happy and long in the process of growth ^[11].

A striking example is the method of burial after death, cremation, used under the influence of Buddhism and Taoism. Due to the influence of the Taoist culture, the Han culture pays considerable attention to burial as such and takes care of preserving the integrity of the whole body, so as not to separate the body from the divinity, so special attention is paid to the body. This is a vivid manifestation of the Taoist idea of immortality in life. For example, the "jade robe of a golden flame" by Liu Sheng, king of Jin Zhongshan in the Western Han Dynasty, discovered in Hebei Province in 1968 (Fig. 1).

Fig. 1. Jade clothing made of golden streams of Liu Sheng (?)). Hebei Provincial Museum

Liu Sheng’s golden wisp jade garment (). Museum of Hebei Province

To achieve immortality and immortality itself, many ancient Chinese emperors used various methods, which also gave rise to many archaeological and cultural phenomena unusual for the rest of the world.

Jade robes are a special funeral garment for the emperors and nobles of the Han Dynasty. They are divided into jade garments with gold threads, jade garments with silver threads and jade garments with bronze threads according to the classes. Under the influence of Taoist culture, people believe that jade represents the essence of mountains, which can prevent the decomposition of corpses, show the status of the host and achieve reincarnation in the afterlife. For these reasons, it was very popular in the noble families of the Han Dynasty to use jade clothes for burial. According to a study by scientists at the Hebei Provincial Museum, Liu Sheng's "Golden Jade Robe" is the earliest, highest level and best preserved of the Chinese archaeological excavations discovered in history. The total length is 1.88 meters, using 2498 pieces of jade and 1100 grams of gold wire.

Being a key point in promoting social reproduction, burial makes living people think about their own future, that is, about what it means to be a human being, which is the problem of the existence of the social in philosophy, the ontology of human being ^[12]. In Taoist ideology, immortality and a Celestial being become typical life constructs, and this creates an opportunity for people to expect and express different visions of the future in time and space both in the world of the living and in the world of the dead.

Summing up, we can say that in the long historical process of the development of Chinese culture, Taoism has had a huge impact on the national life of the Chinese people with its deep historical and cultural heritage. Just like social and cultural phenomena related to life themes, such as "eternity" and "immortality", by "embedding" into social life, it has become a way of "everyday use without awareness", which not only preserves the traditional features of Taoist culture, but also integrates into Chinese traditional and everyday folk customs.

2. The embodiment of the metaphysical system of jade cultureThe traditional Chinese jade culture has a long history dating back at least 8000 years.

The development of jade art is associated with special aspects of the historical process, the environment and the peoples who are characterized by the use of Chinese jade ^[13].

Since ancient times, there has been worship of jade and belief in its power, capabilities and action. In traditional Chinese philosophy and culture, jade artifacts were considered a "bridge" that overcomes life and death and connects immortals with the real world; jade reached the peak of deification in the Han Dynasty ^[14].

The metaphysical ideological system of jade culture is mainly reflected in the following aspects:

1. From the point of view of nature, jade is endowed with very important meanings and signs. During the Qin and Han dynasties, it was considered the essence of mountains in nature. Jade has many supernatural qualities, can make a clean corpse immortal, wearing it can ward off evil spirits.

2. From the point of view of the humanization of life, it was believed that jade acts on the psyche, can go back to the essence of Yang, one of the Chinese traditional philosophical concepts, the other side of which is Yin.

3. It could be taken as food to prolong life. The ancient Chinese discovered the healing function of the trace elements of jade very early. Ge Hong (283-343) from the Eastern Jin Dynasty, known as "Ge Heavenly Being", was a famous Taoist, medical scientist and alchemist. He holds a high position in the history of Taoism, medicine, science and technology. In his book "Baopuzi" (), he quoted the ancient book "Classical Theory of Jade" (): "The life of those who wear gold will be prolonged as gold, and the life of those who wear jade will be prolonged as jade." This concept emphasizes the importance of jade products, considers jade as a medicine for prolonging life and gives confidence that the combination of eternal gold and jade in nature can make people live longer and turn into celestials ^{[15; 16]}.

During the Ming Dynasty, Li Shizhen (1518-1593) in the Compendium Materia Medica, he listed 14 types of jade minerals, studied the medicinal properties and effectiveness of many jade stones mentioned by their predecessors, and also included recipes for the treatment of diseases with jade in traditional medicine, thanks to which jade is combined with the preservation of health and treatment and participates in the mixing of Taoism and Chinese traditional medicine. From the point of view of aesthetic aspirations, people created various jade ornaments suitable for different parts of the body, and used jade as a metaphor for human qualities and morality. These life-related concepts and behaviors were passed down from generation to generation in ancient Chinese families. Thanks to the wisdom of the ancients, various forms of jade were invented in accordance with various aesthetic aspirations, from magical accessories for celestial beings to ritual vessels representing the royal authority of the emperor in accordance with various purposes.

Initially, jade was used to worship and metaphorize Celestial beings, but gradually turned into a tool for communicating with Celestial beings. When Taoism arose, jade became one of the sources of strengthening faith in Heavenly beings, as one of the important means of facilitating the transition of people and their souls into Heavenly beings. Since jade was perceived as the Spirit of Heaven and Earth, it became the embodiment of the highest value in Taoism, so its metaphysical value is manifested in the attitude that says: "Jade is higher than gold." The supreme Taoist deity Sanqing Tianzun includes Yuqing Yuanshi Tianzun, Shanqing Lingbao Tianzun and Taiqing Daode Tianzun. Among them, Yuqing Yuanshi Tianzun has the most noble status. The place where he lives is Qingweitian Yuqingjing. In the Taoist concept of the Universe, the great Luotian rises above the noble Sanqingjing, and in the center of Daluotian is "Xuandu Yujing", which is the capital of all Heavenly beings. People believe that jade is a channel that helps to reach this "crowded, yearning place."

Summing up, it can be said that jade was not only integrated into the daily life of the ancient Chinese people, but also had a profound impact on the political system of ancient China. To this day, people retain both faith in these functions and the symbolic culture of jade.

3. The transition processIn ancient China, myths and legends arose very early, as well as the idea of the world of immortals.

It took place in a fictional fantasy world about Celestial beings and people. People imagined that they could become immortal through self-improvement and live forever, that they could enter the world of immortality and ascend to immortality after death. This became a desirable goal ^[17].

Nostalgia for the real world and the fear of death led to the fact that the desire of the ancient Chinese people for immortality became the only spiritual support for them ^[18]. They imagined a fairy-tale world as an ideal place. They not only hoped to enjoy all the benefits as Celestial Beings during their lifetime, but also wished to enter their world after death and be included in the ranking system of the world of Celestial beings. Such ideas were most developed during the Han Dynasty, which focused on tomb culture, and became a trend of the time. They also had a great influence on the formation of the concept of immortals and the construction of a theoretical and practical system of immortals in subsequent generations.

To quote Hanshu Yiwenzhi: "The reason immortals keep the truth about their lives is because they seek the truth about their lives." Tianyinzi Shenjie (·) writes: "In human society they are called human immortals; in heaven they are called celestial immortals; on earth they are called terrestrial immortals; in water they are called aquatic immortals; who can transform effectively will be called a Celestial being." The body is dead, but the soul still exists; the deceased no longer exists in the world, but his original life has not completely "disappeared", but has transformed into another "life form", and people believe in the existence of Celestial beings, they are looking for ways to communicate with a Celestial being, hoping to get to Heaven after death.

One of the signs of an immortal soul in jade products is the plumage. In the concept of the Han Dynasty, Celestial beings have wings that are very similar in characteristics to birds. People believe that Celestial beings have wings like birds and can fly freely in the sky. Therefore, if a person wants to become a Celestial being, he must either turn into a feather or grow wings. In the jade samples presented in Table 1, the plumage is expressed by wings growing on the shoulders and feathers on the body. It is also some manifestation of Taoist thought, which gives rise to a kind of argument that "Good Taoism studies a Celestial Being, grows feathers, and eventually becomes a flying Celestial being."

Table 1 – Symbolism of the immortal soul in jade artifacts (plumage)

According to the classification standards, jade artifacts associated with Taoist immortality, exhibited in the National Museum of China and museums in other provinces, are classified according to two indicators of the time of their discovery. The relevant information is recorded on the official website of the museum: how to identify jade products related to Taoist themes in different periods, and on this basis analyze the process of continuation and change of the mutual integration of Taoist culture and jade culture, discuss the features of the era, patterns of development and evolution, the reasons for the formation of the metaphysical theory of Chinese Taoism and the thought of immortality.

We have analyzed 20 representative jade artifacts, as a result of which we present the following provisions:

1) jade artifacts in combination with the culture of Taoism appeared much earlier, and reached their peak in the Han Dynasty;

2) most of them have the shape of a dragon (?), phoenix (?), cicada (?), tiger (?), owl;

3) most of them have the form of youths and Celestial beings;

4) a significant number are forms of plants such as peach, pine and lotus;

5) there is a general expression of good sense and a desire for blessing and prayer;

6) the duration of the same theme in different dynasties is relatively long;

7) the general direction of the subject – from the presentation of the rank of imperial power to continuous penetration into all aspects of everyday life.

These characteristics in the perspective of Taoism constitute a unique artistic identity, and the identification of artistic identity is necessary and important ^[19]. Identification information is contained in artistic historical artifacts that play the role of character identifiers, which is logically followed by conceptual information such as community identity, gender identity, religious identity and political identity. Separation and identification are made for the convenience of analysis and research. For example, in the samples presented in Table 2, there are elements that are usually used to indicate the identity and status of the owner of the tomb.

Table 2 – Jade artifacts with symbols of the status of the owner and his personality

They are markers not only of an idealized state and political status after death, but also of a kind of spiritual power. In each jade artifact there is a "microcosm" of the epoch associated with history, politics, economy, culture, etc. They themselves are small and integral.

ConclusionAs a native religion in ancient China, Taoism performs not only religious functions, but also more specific life and cultural functions.

Immortality in Taoism is the highest aspiration to human life and spiritual kingdom in the Taoist system. Its value is not only in offering this spiritual direction, but also in creating a complex of systemic and integration practical methods and theoretical systems. Therefore, his spiritual structure is rich. As soon as this spiritual structure becomes a function of immortality, the use of human life will be realized. Here immortality is relative, and it is a kind of practice and expectation of prolonging the life of the human body.

Entering the era of the 21st century, people are more inclined to appreciate and understand different cultures. In different countries, there are different forms of presentation and dissemination of cultural thoughts with objects as their carriers. In ancient Europe, Ancient Greece, the development of the production of stone tools led to the use of precious metals, and in Asia, represented by Ancient China, the production of stone tools led to the use of jade. Jade became a value orientation of different nationalities, expressed metaphysical cognition and life philosophy of people of different nationalities. Being a typical accessory of Oriental culture, jade became the bearer of a unique local culture in ancient China and formed the jade culture that exists today.

Jade products are not only a vivid embodiment of the material culture of the Chinese people, but also a vivid embodiment of the spiritual culture of the Chinese people. The display of jade artifacts not only shows the unique and elegant carving skills of ancient Chinese masters, but also reflects the meaning that people give to jade – a kind of spiritual thinking and a deep philosophy of Taoism. Therefore, the engraving of symbols on stone, as the embodiment of traditional Chinese culture and philosophy, jade tableware, embodying the Taoist philosophy of immortality, has become a kind of basic unit that carries the theory and system of traditional Chinese philosophy, reflecting the epistemology and ontology of man in traditional Chinese philosophy, methodology and dialectics of cognition of the relationship between man and nature.

As can be seen from literary sources, Hebei is one of the origins of Taoism, and the culture of Daoyam has a long history and has given rise to many trends. According to statistics, the Museum of Hebei Province has the largest systematic collection of jade artifacts related to the immortality of Taoism, the second place is taken by the Museum of Henan Province. It can be concluded that in ancient times Taoism had a wide and far-reaching influence, especially in Hebei province. Thus, Taoist culture has a very deep heritage and plays a role in the local traditional culture. The legacy of local traditional culture and economic development played a role in the gradual secularization and folklorization of the development of Taoism at the local level, but nevertheless the jade culture has been preserved, demonstrating the continuity of jade artifacts-symbols.

Based on statistical data on size, ornamentation and modeling, our study showed that jade products on the theme of Taoist immortality have a clearly limited theme, a unique shape and high craftsmanship. This is determined by the following reasons:

1) jade artifacts as ritual "vessels" are carriers of the ancient social hierarchy, a manifestation of social and political order;

2) jade artifacts of Taoist immortality express people's respect for life, the desire for a better life, for an ideal social reality;

3) jade artifacts reflect the social productivity of the time, such as mining technology, carving technology, skill level, aesthetic taste, etc.;

4) as a symbol of rank, jade products reflect the inner moral and ethical views of people in the process of use.

In the process of public observance of etiquette, this Taoist immortality as a moral and ethical concept is elevated into a code of conduct and an ethical order that society as a whole follows. Jade artifacts with the theme of Taoist immortality, expressing the Tao, forming unity with the Tao, complete the pairing of Higher Metaphysics () and Lower Metaphysics (). And finally, jade artifacts became a typical accessory of the early ancient Chinese civilization.

These Dao and jade artifacts with the theme of Taoist immortality organically complement each other, promote each other and represent the natural content of Chinese culture in religion, politics, culture and other aspects.

In Taoism, jade is used as a magical tool (Jade Gui (), Jade Tiger () and others) in order to ward off bad luck and evil spirits, in funeral rites to achieve immortality due to the fact that jade exists forever as a "holy altar and a reliable stronghold". Through jade artifacts and art with the spiritual world and all things in the universe as the object and purpose of reproduction, the series of Taoist prayers for a better life continues in our time as an important theme used in jade carving ("Fu Lu Shou Xi" (?)), "Ji Xiang Zhu Yi" (), "Dai Dai Shou Xian" (), "Wang Fu Lun Shou" ()) and so on).

Jade artifacts embody the ethics, aesthetics and life of the Chinese people and become a special symbol of traditional Chinese culture, preserving its continuity through generations. As a symbol, they not only carry the national spiritual system, but also show their contribution to world culture at the national level. From people to gods/From everyday life to the spiritual world, the practice and theory of Taoist metaphysics, focused on the idea of immortality, reflect the epistemology and ontology of the ancient Chinese in relation to the body and life. This kind of epistemology and ontology of life embodies the spiritual structure and traditional culture of the Chinese people and adds interesting content to the system of human philosophy.

The combination of Taoist immortality and jade artifacts contributed to the evolutionary process of inheritance, continuation, change and universal life. Different dynasties imposed several factors on the form of the same theme, preserving the simplicity, diversity and acceptability of the theme. The general style not only generated an antique aesthetic interest, but also influenced the modern aesthetic orientation.