Women's Terrorism in the Caucasus

Horbil Pavel ORCID: 0000-0002-8392-5652 Postgraduate, Department of Theory and History of International Relations, Peoples' Friendship University of Russia 117198, Russia, Moscow, Moscow, Miklukho-Maklaya str., 6, . paherono@mail.ru Korosteleva Elizaveta Igorevna ORCID: 0000-0002-7594-1214 Postgraduate, Department of Theory and History of International Relations, Peoples' Friendship University of Russia 117198, Russia, Moscow region, Moscow, Miklukho-Maklaya str., 6, . liza.korosteleva.99@mail.ru

Raad Feras-Adam Postgraduate, Department of Theory and History of International Relations, Peoples' Friendship University of Russia 117198, Russia, Moscow region, Moscow, Miklukho-Maklaya str., 6, . ferasss1998@gmail.com

Introduction

Society is a self—organizing, self-developing, self-sufficient social system ^[13]. Being an integral part of it, the regional order reflects the attributive property of the system to maintain its integrity with a possible change in its characteristics ^[10]. Thus, the social system and the regional order have one thing in common — to maintain its integrity, while changes within each structure are permissible.

Terrorism can be both a way to change the social system and the regional order. In the first case, this may manifest itself in the form of a revolutionary struggle to change existing social foundations, and the reason for the use of terrorist methods in the second case may be attempts to change the situation in the region.

The versatility of modern political processes, the endless struggle for spheres of influence, the existence of threats of a global nature – all this indicates that international relations are a dynamically developing system, whose actors directly affect not only its complex development, but also the emergence of problems and threats of a global nature.  According to constructivist theory, terrorism is not just a social phenomenon, but its origin is directly related to such cognitive factors as ideological and religious worldviews ^[7]. Proponents of constructivism believe that ideological and confessional differences, as well as other aspects that have developed within the framework of the historical development of society, can cause conflict for states ^[13].

This article examines the features of the manifestation of terrorism involving the female population, as well as trends and aspects of the use of gender terrorism.

Let us turn to history and note that we can find more than one confirmation of the revolutionary and terrorist activities of women. For example, for a long time, the actual leader of the Basque group was a woman, and the women's wing of the Zapatista movement in Mexico was controlled by Comandante Ramona. And if such participation of women in left-wing radical organizations can be explained by the rise of movements fighting for feminist ideas, then in the case of the Caucasus, female separatism arises due to the same gender inequality, but rather is explained not by the struggle of women for their rights, but by their discrimination and the use of women as a tool in the struggle for ideological views.

In Russia, terrorism emerged as a method of revolution and the liberation struggle of the people, similar to the approach promoted by Carlo Pisacane, arguing that the use of violence is necessary not only to attract public attention or publicize ideas, but for the sake of education, education and, finally, rallying the people in the name of revolution ^[15]. In the Russian Empire, Narodnaya Volya and the Party of Socialist Revolutionaries were organizations that carried out terrorist acts, guided by the principles of Pisacane. In imperial times, all terrorist acts were based on revolutionary ideas, which were mainly manifested by socio-revolutionary terrorism ^[8].

According to O. Budnitsky, one of the inspirers of the creators of the terrorist organization Narodnaya Volya, which later killed the Russian Emperor Alexander II, was Vera Zasulich, the first Russian terrorist who shot at the St. Petersburg mayor F. F. Trepov and was acquitted by a jury. In addition, O. Budnitsky believes that women participated in the preparation of terrorist acts on an equal basis with men, citing the example of Sofia Perovskaya, who led the preparations for the murder of the Russian ruler; Vera Figner, who participated in almost all terrorist acts; Maria Kutitonskaya, who attempted to assassinate the governor of Transbaikalia and Maria Kalyuzhnaya, who shot at the head of the gendarmerie department in Odessa and a participant in the Kariya tragedy ^[5].

The Party of Socialist Revolutionaries (SRS) considered itself the successor of the "People's Will". Even before the beginning of the First Russian Revolution of 1905-1907, the SRS carried out 233 terrorist operations ^[8], after the number of terrorist attacks decreased, but still the party continued to exist, remaining a demonstration of disagreement with the existing form of power. The legitimization of the party and its manifestation in the newly formed parliament (the State Duma) became one of the reasons for the growth of popularity among the population of the empire.

In the North Caucasus, as in other regions, local authorities were afraid to inform the local population about the February Revolution immediately, as they feared their reaction, which could lead to chaos. However, the changes still affected this region. Already at the beginning of the Civil War, the Transcaucasian Democratic Federal Republic was proclaimed, which then split into Armenia, Georgia and Azerbaijan. It is worth noting that during the delimitation of borders, some territorial issues between the countries were not resolved, which leads to their actualization at the present stage. After the establishment of Soviet power in the region, disagreements between peoples periodically manifested themselves and separatist movements existed. In addition, ethnic differences also arose in the North Caucasus, which was part of the RSFSR. Unresolved ethnic conflicts, the deportation of peoples from their homelands to other parts of the Soviet Union and Soviet propaganda of atheism became prerequisites for the radicalization of the Caucasian population, which subsequently led to an increase in terrorist threats, which we will discuss in more detail later.

The Caucasus region is still considered one of the most unstable. Due to the ethnic and confessional diversity, the region becomes a point of collision of views of various groups of the population. Pursuing the goal of disorganizing society, terrorist groups find the Caucasus region as an object of their subversive activities.

It is worth noting that radical Islamism is widely developed in the region, which determines the predominant type of terrorism in the Caucasus and the nature of terrorist attacks.

The first wave of terrorist acts in the Caucasus region occurred in the period from 1985 to 1991, which was due to political instability between the republics and the clash of their interests. The territorial claims of Armenia and Azerbaijan to Nagorno-Karabakh have led to the escalation of the conflict and the use of terrorist acts to solve it. The 1988 conflict over South Ossetia and Abkhazia led the Georgian SSR to regional instability and the use of various methods of terrorist activity on its territory.

These territories became the site of a significant number of terrorist acts and pushed other Soviet republics to the idea of separatism and secession. Thus, the last years of the existence of the Soviet Union and the period after its collapse became the starting point in increasing the level of the use of terrorist methods and transforming approaches to the implementation of terrorist activities.

The entire Caucasus region was part of the Soviet Union and was an important region, as it is a region with access to the Azov, Black, Caspian Seas, and is also a border region between Europe and Central Asia. It is important for Russia that the Caucasus be a stable region, although today its main problems remain ethnic conflicts and the spread of terrorism. The destabilization of the region since the end of the last century has a negative impact not only on the local population, but also on Russia as a whole.

It is worth noting that the Caucasus is heterogeneous not only in its ethnic composition, among which there are more than 50 nationalities, but also in its religious composition: the two predominant religions are Islam, with representatives of both Sunni and Shiite currents, and Christianity, which in turn is also divided into the Russian Orthodox, Georgian Orthodox, and Armenian Apostolic churches.

To date, the Caucasus region has not reached a solution to all historically formed issues, ethnic conflicts and territorial disputes also remain in the region, which in turn become factors influencing the spread of terrorism. The phenomenon of women's terrorism is also reflected in this region. It is noteworthy that in the Caucasus, women do not become leaders of movements, but "living weapons" that are used to embody the ideas of terrorist groups. Since the end of the last century, female suicide bombers or "live bombs", as they are also called, have become a new trend in the development of terrorism in the Caucasus.

Analysis of biographies of female suicide bombers shows that Caucasian women became suicide bombers for various reasons, they include: psychological problems, vulnerability of certain groups of the population, loss of loved ones and desire for revenge (widows of dead militants), the influence of relatives who were already members of terrorist groups. Based on these reasons, psychological treatment and special training were carried out, after which the future terrorist had to "complete her mission" ^[2]. 

The Caucasus region covers the territories of Russia, Georgia, Azerbaijan, Armenia and the territories of unrecognized/partially recognized countries: Abkhazia, South Ossetia and the Nagorno-Karabakh Republic. As part of the study based on the method of situational analysis, we will consider the post-Soviet conflicts in the Caucasus. The hypothesis of the study is that there is a connection between ethnicity, religion and the presence of women in terrorist activities in the Caucasus. This study examines three conflicts in the region and notes the participation of the female population in them:

1) Between Armenia and Azerbaijan

2) Between Georgia and the peoples in Georgia

3) Between Russia and the peoples of the North Caucasus

Armenia and Azerbaijan

Armenian terrorism appeared in the Ottoman Empire, the most famous terrorist groups are Armenakan, Gnchak, Dashnaktsutyun. All three organizations used terrorist methods to achieve their goals. The goals were to raise the Armenian consciousness, get rid of the oppression of the Ottomans, the struggle for the independence of Armenia and its unification (the territories were in both the Russian and the Ottoman Empires). For example, there was one woman among the founders of Gnchak – Mariam Vardanyan. One of the prominent figures of Dashnaktsutyun was Sose Mayrik (Vardanyan). However, it is worth noting that these organizations did not operate after the creation of the Soviet Union on its territory.

Ethnic conflicts between Armenians and Azerbaijanis began in Soviet times, and during perestroika, clashes between the two peoples manifested themselves. Terrorist methods of struggle were used on both sides, and the situation was aggravated by the fact that the Union center lost control of the situation ^[6].

It is necessary to separate terrorist and military activities, if we consider that the Karabakh war lasted from 1992-1996 and in 2021, then there were terrorist attacks, but no direct participation of women in them was detected, except for the 1994 terrorist attack in the Baku metro. The explosions inside the Baku metro, although they were in wartime, but the explosions in it are a terrorist attack, by an Armenian by origin Kamo Saakov. His wife Elena Saakova was found guilty of preparing this terrorist attack, the man was sentenced to death, the fate of the woman is unknown.

In the case of religious terrorism, it should be said that some Azerbaijanis from the Kvemo-Kartli region are members of ISIS (a terrorist organization banned in the Russian Federation) ^[4]. Recruitment to the Islamic State occurs mainly through Internet propaganda in social networks, through recruiters who psychologically influence vulnerable segments of the population (including women and children) ^[1].

The result of the analysis is the absence of a large participation of women in active terrorist activities in these countries, which does not mean their absence in terrorist cells. At the same time, recruitment is carried out mainly among Muslim women.

Georgia and the Peoples in Georgia

Ethnic clashes in South Ossetia and Abkhazia, as well as between Armenians and Azerbaijanis, began in the last years of the Soviet Union. During the period 1988-1991, more than 40 terrorist acts were committed in the Georgian SSR, the purpose of which was to destabilize the relations of the center with the regions, which eventually led to two wars ^[6].

Speaking about religious terrorism in Georgia, it is worth noting that hundreds of Georgian citizens are found among ISIS (a terrorist organization banned in the Russian Federation), but despite the appearance of this kind of information, the official leadership of the country denies the participation of its citizens in actions on the side of the Islamic State ^[4].

During the Chechen conflict, Georgia became a haven for Chechen militants, who later continued their subversive activities in other countries. In 2019, Zelimkhan Khangoshvili, a militant of Georgian-Chechen origin, was shot dead in Germany, which led to the aggravation of bilateral relations between Russia and Germany and the retaliatory expulsion of diplomats from the countries. According to some reports, about 1,000 Chechens were initially hiding in the Pankisi Gorge, a place of refuge for militants, and prisoners were also held there. Only in 2002, due to Russia's increasing influence on the Shevardnadze government, Georgia recognized the location of Chechen militants on its territory ^[11].

Georgia's conflict with Russia in 2008 attracted not only Chechen militants to Georgia, but also groups of terrorists who fought on the side of ISIS in Syria and Iraq. Despite the fact that after the fateful terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001, countries began to take serious measures to counter terrorist threats, the Georgian government was ready to encourage any anti-Russian activity.

Georgia has a law on combating terrorism, but not all actions of Georgian law enforcement agencies can demonstrate its implementation. So, in the case of the terrorist Ahmed Chatayev, who fought on the side of ISIS in Syria, and then worked on the organization of the explosion at Istanbul airport, the Georgian authorities stated that they knew nothing about the presence of a member of an international terrorist organization on their territory.

It is worth saying that women's terrorism in Georgia has not become widespread. However, according to some reports, the suicide bomber who carried out the terrorist attack in Tushino in Moscow arrived from Georgia.

In Georgia, as in other states, recruitment to ISIS and other terrorist and extremist groups has been noted. Russian women who lived in Chechnya are most often the object of recruitment of women, there are citizens of Azerbaijan, residents of Dagestan, Georgia and Turkey. But in the case of Georgia, there is a low rate of women who have stepped on the side of Shahidism. To a large extent, this is due to a stable confessional factor, in Georgia more than 91% of residents profess Orthodoxy, most of whom consider themselves to be the Georgian Orthodox Church. It is impossible not to note the loyal attitude of the Georgian government to the militants. With the free conduct of business by terrorist groups, there is no need for active recruitment of the population.

Russia and the peoples of the North Caucasus

The North Caucasus is a region dominated by Islam, and the main prerequisite for the emergence of terrorism is that the idea of universal Islamization of the population was intensively promoted among the peoples professing Islam during the period of perestroika. The opposition between the existing socialist system and the laws of Allah provoked the radicalization of the population, which turned into the emergence and spread of terrorism in this region.

In the last decade of the twentieth century, the terrorist organization "Congress of the Peoples of Ichkeria and Dagestan" was created, Al-Qaeda and the Muslim Brotherhood began their spread (all organizations are banned in the Russian Federation).

Islamic radicalism has led to the emergence of a new type of female terrorism – suicide bombers. Suicide bombers are a type of terrorism in which women, sacrificing themselves, commit a terrorist act in order to intimidate, intimidate the population, guided by the fact that they do it in the name of Allah. The first female suicide bombers in Russia were Hava Zhdansurkaeva (Barayeva) and Luisa Magomadova, in June 2000 they drove into the military commandant's office in a car packed with explosives, taking the lives of 27 servicemen ^[9].

In 2001, on the initiative of Shamil Basayev, a terrorist organization consisting of only women, called "Black Widows", was created. A common feature of the women who took part in the terrorist acts of this organization, and served as the basis for the creation of this group of terrorists, was that they were the wives of militants. Suicide bombers have committed a number of terrorist attacks on the territory of Russia, including a terrorist attack in Nord-Ost, a terrorist attack at a rock concert in Tushino, explosions of public transport both in Moscow and in other regions of Russia.

At the same time, there is a bad tendency that Muslims living in the North Caucasus, migrating to the Middle East, join terrorist groups there. Among Muslims, there are often women who, together with their husbands, become militants and plan to commit Jihad ^[16].

Conclusions

Women's terrorism appeared in the Russian Empire, but then it took the form of socio-revolutionary terrorism, but there were no terrorist attacks in the Caucasus committed only by women, although they could take part in them. Since the beginning of perestroika, the problem of the Caucasus has sharply worsened, as there was propaganda of radical Islam among the Muslim population, and unresolved ethnic conflicts contributed to destabilization in the region. The Caucasus region is a target for terrorist groups because of its strategic location and geopolitical importance.

The main reasons for the emergence of women's terrorism in the Caucasus are: propaganda of radical Islam, social disadvantage, gender inequality, thirst for revenge. Thus, women were subjected to psychological influence or recruitment, which eventually made them subjects of terrorist activity.

The authors' case study analysis yielded the following results:

1. There were no separate terrorist attacks by women or with the participation of women in Armenia and Azerbaijan, while women took part in the Karabakh war as militants.

2. Few cases of women's involvement in terrorism have been registered in Georgia, and in the case of Georgia, the percentage of recruited women is extremely small.

3. In the North Caucasus, which is under Russian control, the problem of terrorism has been very relevant since perestroika. The problem of "black widows" in Russia has not manifested itself for a long time, the last terrorist attack committed by a terrorist in Russia was in 2013, in 2016 a Muslim woman killed a child, but a forensic expert said that it was not a premeditated terrorist attack. It can be concluded that Russia's anti-terrorist policy has proved successful.

4. The hypothesis of the study is partially confirmed. The authors failed to find the relationship between the ethnic component and the participation of women in terrorist activities, while the influence of the confessional factor can be noted, since the absolute majority of Caucasian women involved in terrorism are Muslim.

The Russian Federation continues to consider the entire Caucasus as a zone of its sphere of influence and considers it important that the region be stable, despite the existing contradictions. In order to maintain regional order, it is necessary to prevent terrorism and extremism in order to prevent the development of terrorist activities, and this is an urgent area of activity not only in the Russian Federation ^[12], but also in other Caucasian countries.