The Influence of Chinese Traditional Philosophical Ideas on Ancient Chinese Architecture

Van Fan PhD in Art History Department of Art Theory and History, Moscow Pedagogical State University 109052, Russia, Moscow region, Moscow, Ryazan str., 9, office 3 wangfang@internet.ru Other publications by this author

Confucianism and Taoism are the two main schools of traditional Chinese philosophy. In the history of Chinese philosophy, along with Confucianism and Taoism, other schools developed, such as Legism, Moism and Yin Yang Jia. However, due to the change of the political regime or their own defects, they cannot occupy a certain place in the history of philosophy. Thus, Confucianism and Taoism stand out from numerous academic schools and become the dominant philosophical ideas in Chinese society.

Confucianism considers benevolence, loyalty, decency, wisdom and honesty to be its essence. Its main meaning is that every person living in society is required to restrain himself with a number of good morals, such as etiquette, benevolence and righteousness, and further improve the whole society with standards that are used to commit himself. In this way, people can get closer to "heaven" and get a comfortable and natural feeling. And Taoism demands that people can return to the natural environment, since people can live close to nature, after striving to fulfill their social duties and missions in order to achieve "unity between man and nature."

As for the idea of the Confucian essence of benevolence, loyalty, decency, wisdom and honesty, the most typical example is the application of the "ritual system" in ancient Chinese architecture. The architectural hierarchy formed on the basis of the needs of "rituals" is a unique phenomenon of ancient Chinese architecture ^{[1, p.35]}. As a code of conduct for a gentleman's self-discipline in everyday life, it is reflected in architecture as rules, balance and symmetry. The central axis of traditional Chinese architecture is the basis of symmetry, this is true for the design of a single building, and for a group of buildings, and even more so for the layout of the city.

In addition, the Confucian doctrine of the "doctrine of the middle" also had an important influence on traditional Chinese architecture. Confucius believed that the "doctrine of the middle" is a way of thinking that requires people to choose a moderate standard at any time and apply the appropriate method according to the specific situation. The "Doctrine of the middle" expresses a kind of dialectical thinking: if the development of something goes beyond a certain limit, it will develop in the opposite direction. Therefore, ancient Chinese architecture, especially ancient residential buildings, emphasizes the moderation of living space.

As a representative building of the royal court, the Forbidden City has developed the feudal hierarchy to the extreme. The main building and auxiliary buildings of the Forbidden City are located on the central axis, and the square layout inside and outside the palace makes the distribution of the main and auxiliary buildings obvious. Even Beijing, the ancient capital, is one of the masterpieces embodying the symmetrical and balanced "doctrine of the middle." From Tiananmen Square to Shenwumen in Beijing, the entire huge architectural complex rests on a central axis, demonstrating symmetry in front, back, left and right. This historical preference and the architectural image of symmetry on the central axis not only have the characteristics of a "ritual", but also demonstrate the beauty of harmony ^{[2, p.63]}. In addition, a typical Beijing architectural form is "four with a common courtyard" and this form also embodies the patriarchal and ethical system of Chinese feudal society. Residences in the style of "four with a common courtyard" were common already during the Han Dynasty, in addition, palaces, temples and other buildings mainly used the same method ^{[3, p.34]}. The gates "four with a common yard" are not located on the central axis. The north gate of the residences is open in the southeast corner, and the south gate of the residences is open in the northwest corner. The complex is divided into a front yard and a back yard, separated by a courtyard wall. The door separating the inner and outer courtyards is placed on the central axis. The front yard is used for receiving guests, and the back yard is the master room, and guests are not allowed to enter inside. The room at the front gate is located on the central axis, and the elder usually lives in it, and the wing rooms are symmetrically distributed on the left and right sides, where the younger generations live. Thus, the front and back yards form a layout in which the elders and the young are ordered, men and women differ and seniority is appropriate. This housing model is formed in accordance with feudal-patriarchal rites and hierarchical representations.

Under the influence of the ideology of the "doctrine of the middle" in ancient Chinese buildings, much attention was paid to the style of symmetry, balance and coordination. Ancient Chinese architecture focuses on the neutralization and complementarity of opposites, striving for the unity of man-made and natural, the unity of standardization and diversity, as well as the unity of rationality and sensitivity in both creative thinking and design techniques. A symmetrical and balanced view of the "doctrine of the middle" is adopted in the space, location and style of the building.

Taoism, like Confucianism, is also one of the foundations of Chinese traditional culture, and his thoughts had a profound influence on ancient Chinese architecture. The main idea of Taoism is the worship of nature. In the Tao te Ching, Lao Tzu believes that heaven and earth are objects and the whole of nature, and man is a subject co-existing with heaven and earth. This worldview of "unity between man and nature" integrates the subject into the object, forming a single and indivisible whole.

"The unity between man and nature" is the basic tenet of traditional Chinese philosophy. This idea has a profound and lasting influence on ancient Chinese architectural culture and is the cornerstone of ancient Chinese architecture. The unity of man and nature emphasizes the harmonious coexistence of man and nature, and highlights that they exist in a single whole, and is manifested in the desire for harmony and unity of "man–architecture–natural environment" in architecture.

Chinese ancient buildings are rich in types, such as royal palaces, temples, dwellings, underground tombs, gardens in the south of the Yangtze River and so on. Although their types and functions are different, they all reveal the idea of "unity between man and nature."

It is obvious to everyone that this affects Chinese traditional homes. Influenced by the idea of "unity between man and nature", traditional Chinese dwellings are based on the theory of "feng shui" [a person's choice of living or burial environment in order to achieve the goal of finding good luck and avoiding evil], emphasizing the most harmonious human relations and dialogue with nature, as well as the completeness or imperfection of space. If there is a shortage, it will be filled artificially, which indicates a deliberate desire for spatial position and direction and a re-creation to correct the shortage of the environment ^{[4, p.11]}. The Feng Shui language is a basic theory about the location, environment, orientation, shape and scale of residential buildings, and its essence is a theory about the relationship between people, nature and society.

The basic standard on which traditional Chinese garden architecture is based is more based on the idea of conformity to nature in Taoism. Take the Summer Imperial Palace for example. Apart from the bridge, there are no other tall buildings around Kunming Lake in the Summer Imperial Palace that could block the vision. The side of the western mountain is long enough that the landscape of the western mountain can be reflected in the lake. Although this scene comes from a brilliant idea of people, it seems that it was formed naturally. In addition, the wall in the garden makes a sharp impression on people, but the willows on the west bank only cover this wall, erasing the rigid boundary between the inner and outer, so that the mountains, willows on the west bank and the water landscape of Kunming Lake have become one. The whole landscape naturally fits into the space between heaven and earth. Such an original layout in accordance with the terrain and the arbitrary use of natural landscapes allow the architectural layout of the Summer Imperial Palace to achieve harmony between man and nature ^{[5, p.98]}.

The Taoist idea of origin from nature and return to it can also be clearly seen in typical Chinese residential buildings with a front yard and a back garden. In the spatial structure of the front yard and back garden, the front part of the entire building complex is the main building, including halls, etc., which are used for people's daily life and for receiving guests. The layout of the garden at the back allows them to relax here and enjoy the taste of life, which reflects the Taoist desire for a natural life.

Taoism also attaches great importance to the concept of "qi" [This is an ancient Chinese philosophical concept. Subjective idealists use it to refer to the subjective spirit]. In the article "Chuang Tzu · Journey to the North" [an article written by Chuang Zhou, a famous thinker of the Warring States period. The content of this article mainly concerns the "Tao". On the one hand, it indicates the origin and nature of the universe, and on the other hand, it also discusses the understanding and attitude that people should take towards the universe] emphasizes that human life activity is produced by the movement and change of "qi", and the rise and fall of "qi" are the main forms of life movement. This concept had a great influence on ancient Chinese architecture. The traditional architectural layout was initially oriented to the south from the north, but later, in connection with the formation of the concept of "feng Shui", the main principle was the choice of the appropriate direction and terrain.

The classical gardens of Suzhou are one of the typical examples of this idea. Among them, the most famous is the pavilion "Seething Waves". Outside the garden gate there is a stream of water flowing through the garden. No walls were built on this side of the garden, but a double corridor with hollow windows opens out, so that the water landscape is "borrowed" into the garden. This method is called "borrowing the landscape" in the ancient garden book "Yuan Ye" [A monograph on ancient Chinese gardening, and this is the first monograph on the theory of garden art in China. Written by Ji Cheng, a gardener of the late Ming Dynasty]. The rest of the garden design, including mountains, rocks, pools, etc., imitates nature to achieve the idea of "although it is made by people, it looks like nature" mentioned in the book "Yuan Ye". Among them, the idea of Taoism is particularly obvious: by imitating nature through artificial carving, unity between man and nature is finally achieved.

Another important feature of Taoism is the worship of immortals. This more or less affects ancient Chinese architecture. Ancient temple architecture can be characterized as the crystallization of philosophy and religion. The temple is a place of worship of the gods in Taoism, holding events and ceremonies, as well as a missionary point of Taoism. Taoist temples are mostly built on mountains, surrounded by forests, and temples are usually quiet. Even the Taoist temples in the city are struggling to create a calm atmosphere. All these characteristics show the desire of Taoists to "become immortal".

The development of ancient Chinese architecture has always been based on the worship of nature, and when planning considered the environment to realize the integration of buildings and the natural environment. This is clearly different from ancient European architecture. It can be seen that in ancient European buildings there are small windows on thick stone walls, and there are almost no long corridors outside the building, both inside and outside are relatively isolated. However, the internal and external spaces of Chinese buildings are distinguished by the desire for mutual penetration with the natural environment. Ancient Chinese architecture demonstrates the philosophical concept of the unity of man and nature. Through the integration of architecture and the natural environment, a harmonious picture is built between man and nature.

As for the philosophical thought about ancient Chinese architecture, there is a widespread opinion in academic circles outside China: Chinese royal palaces and residential buildings are influenced by Confucianism, and garden architecture is influenced by Taoism. But in fact, this point of view is not exhaustive. It should be said that Chinese garden architecture is influenced by both Taoism and Confucianism, and this duality is evident in Chinese garden architecture. In ancient China, the two schools of Confucianism and Taoism often did not exclude each other in real life, but complemented each other. In ancient times, ordinary officials also often studied the knowledge of the two schools.

More importantly, Taoism advocates a return to nature, and Confucianism also emphasizes harmony with nature. Confucius said, "The knowledgeable enjoy the water, and the benevolent enjoy the mountains." [A wise man loves water, and a benevolent man loves mountains. This means that a wise person is alive and full of aura, like water, and a benevolent person is stable and generous, like a mountain — this is the highest state of Confucianism in the pursuit of an ideal life]. This remark is considered a classic of landscape analysis. Therefore, there is no fundamental contradiction between Confucianism and Taoism in their attitude to nature. This has a beneficial effect on both landscape architecture and garden design.

Garden buildings as personal residences developed during the Six Dynasties, when the Taoist school expounded the spirit of man and became an independent and authentic artistic category. But in the eyes of the Confucian school, living in seclusion in the countryside is a way of self—improvement and an extreme measure. Therefore, the garden construction of the Confucian school differs from the guiding ideology of the Taoist school. After the Tang and Song dynasties, the design of the garden became more and more secular, and the garden was full of content such as living, receiving guests, banquets and reading, which was different from the "Zen" style of the Japanese garden, and was strongly influenced by Buddhism. While in the late period of ancient Chinese society, garden architecture was greatly influenced by Confucianism ^{[6, pp.59-60]}.

Conclusion Chinese philosophy, as a theory of human self-consciousness, does not give knowledge, but mainly gives ideas and ways of thinking for the needs of human self-development; the most important thing in Chinese philosophical theory is not its conclusions, but the spiritual mood that it can give.

Ancient Chinese philosophy is the wisdom and essence of Chinese traditional culture, and ancient Chinese architecture is strongly influenced by it. The influence of ancient Chinese philosophy on ancient Chinese architecture cannot be described in detail in one short article. Because there are many thoughts that influenced the development of ancient Chinese architecture, such as Confucius' thoughts on etiquette, the idea of the "doctrine of the middle" and the concept of hierarchical division; Lao Tzu's desire for harmony and unity between man and nature, worship of the gods, etc., as well as the theory of "feng shui" that emerged later These ideas had a profound impact on ancient Chinese architecture, including urban planning, traditional dwellings, the temple space environment and garden architecture in the south of the Yangtze River. In addition, it is an indisputable fact that the complementarity of Confucianism and Taoism runs through the entire history of Chinese philosophy and is the main key to the development of traditional Chinese cultural thought. This interpenetrating, mixing and intertwining ideological system has created a unique Chinese architectural style.

Under the influence of Confucianism and Taoist philosophy, ancient Chinese architecture not only paid attention to high consistency with nature, reflecting the principle of "unity between man and nature", but also paid special attention to the aesthetic effect of achieving symmetry and balance. Under this influence, not only attention is paid to the integration of architecture and the environment, but also a high degree of unity between the material world and the spiritual world is emphasized, forming a unique national artistic style of Chinese classical architecture. Whether it is now or in the future, the essence of ancient Chinese philosophy will always be the soul of the development of Chinese architecture.

Fig.1. Simplified map of the city of Beijing and its central axis during the Ming and Qing dynasties. Source: Beijing Newspaper.

Fig.2. The real picture of modern Beijing. Source: The central axis of Beijing is a brilliant crystallization of ancient Chinese metropolitan culture.

Fig.3. The plan of the Forbidden City. A source:The collection of the Palace Museum.                             Fig.4. Drawing of the architectural effect "Siheyuan".

Source: Secrets of "Siheyuan" Beijing.

Fig.5. Kunming Lake in the Summer Palace. Source: Visual China.

Fig.6. Classical gardens of Suzhou - pavilion "Seething waves". Source: https://baike .baidu.com/item//215979

Fig.7. The manifestation of Chinese traditional philosophical principles in the design of spaces of Chinese architecture. Source: Author's diagram.