The Сoncept of Сonscience in Russian, French and Chinese Сultures

Golovanivskaya Mariya Konstantinovna Doctor of Philology Professor, Department of Area Studies, Faculty of Foreign Languages and Area Studies, Lomonosov Moscow State University 119991, Russia, Moscow, Leninskie Gory str., 1, p. 13 golovanivskaya@gmail.com Other publications by this author

Efimenko Nikolai Aleksandrovich ORCID: 0000-0002-4003-5887 Student, Department of Area Studies, Faculty of Foreign Languages and Area Studies, Lomonosov Moscow State University 119991, Russia, Moscow, Leninskie Gory str., 1, p. 13 efimenko200205@mail.ru Other publications by this author

The concept of conscience is one of the central concepts of Christian morality. Within the framework of Christian doctrine, conscience is an innate way of knowing the divine will. The will of God, as the fathers of the church teach us, can become known to man in two ways: in an internal, natural way, through an inner innate awareness of the will of God, consisting in basic unwritten moral laws (these laws are written only in human hearts), on the basis of which written laws are drawn up, designed to serve public life and to bring up a moral principle in everyone. Another way of bringing the Divine will to man is the Revelations and Commandments embodied in Christ, this method is characterized as external, historical. The human conscience is based on his three psychic powers: cognition, feelings and will. In Chinese culture, conscience is the most important part of the Confucian philosophical teaching about the natural inclination to good, described as the innate ability to know good and evil.  

The concept of "conscience" in Russian cultureConscience is originally co–knowledge, knowledge shared by many, which underlies collective assessment and collective actions.

This word has been fixed since the XI century with the meaning of "understanding", "understanding", "knowledge", "consent", "indication", "purity" ^[1]. The word is a tracing paper from Greek, unlike another French tracing paper – consciousness – consciousness, co–knowledge - from Latin. 

The different origin of these two words, Russian from Greek and French from Latin, largely explains the essential divergence of their meanings and usage. The concept of conscience is central in the modern Slavic world and myth, and is clearly peripheral in the Romance languages, which use the same word that came from Latin to denote both conscience and consciousness. Consciousness came to the Romance languages not from religious texts, as in Slavic, but from scientific ones, where it is actively used to this day. In everyday speech, the word "consciousness" is also used, although not too often, but its meaning has nothing to do with Christian dogmas and ideas of internal arbitration and punishment for wrongdoing.

Vl. Dahl defines the Russian word "conscience" as moral consciousness, thereby unwittingly emphasizing the larger scope of the concept of consciousness in relation to conscience, moral sense or feeling in a person, inner consciousness of good and evil, the secret place of the soul, in which the approval or condemnation of each act is recalled; the ability to recognize the quality of the act; the feeling that prompts truth and goodness, aversion from lies and evil, involuntary love for truth, goodness, innate truth in various degrees of development ^[2]. The contexts that Vl. Dal cites help us to see some of the fundamental features of its figurative embodiment, which have been significantly developed in modern language: conscience is timid until you drown it out; you can't hide it from conscience (from God); remorse: toothless, but it will gnaw away with bones; conscience does not let you sleep; in whom shame, that's the conscience.

In modern Russian studies, a lot has been written about conscience. From our point of view, the most interesting description of conscience is found in Yu. D. Apresyan in his article "The image of a person according to language" ^{[3, pp. 37-68]}, then reproduced in his two–volume collection of works. Yu. D. Apresyan opposes will and conscience, believing that the first is actuation, the second is inhibition. We do not fully share this opposition, believing that conscience can also serve as an incentive to action, as well as will, can be expressed in purposeful inhibition, in stimulating inactivity (for example, in such contexts: have a conscience, give him money back; but: strain the will and do not drink).

Yu. D. Apresyan rightly insists that conscience is a kind of being inside a person who performs the role of a strict internal judge. This inner judge is always focused on the good, has an unmistakable sense of supreme justice and an imperative principle. The compatibility of the Russian word "conscience" so fully describes the image corresponding to this concept that it is possible to build a whole story based on these combinations:

"If a person hears the voice of conscience, listens to it and acts according to his conscience, does as his conscience tells him, then he receives a clean, calm conscience as a reward. If he suppresses it in himself, acts against it, then his conscience torments him, does not give him rest, torments, gnaws. The wrong act is a heavy burden on his conscience, he feels remorse. If a person tries to drown out his conscience, then it can wake up, wake up and speak in him."

Considering the above contexts, we speak about conscience in Russian as follows: to hear, to listen to the voice of your conscience, to listen to your conscience; conscience speaks, prompts, advises, commands; conscience torments, torments, gnaws, gnaws, eats; conscience wakes up, wakes up, stirs; pure, calm conscience; a drop of conscience, the remnants of conscience; to answer to your conscience, to consult with your conscience; to drown out the voice of conscience in yourself; to have, forget, lose conscience. 

From the above compatibility we see that conscience is represented in Russian modern mythology as:

1. The judge. This judge not only judges, but also advises. We see that this image has an accentuated mouth: conscience not only speaks, but also gnaws, gnaws, etc. 

2. The worm. The symbolism of the mouth, as well as the symbolism of fire, has two sides: creative (as in speech) and destructive (absorbing). Special methods of punishment that are attributed to conscience – gnawing, gnawing, eating – are characteristic of afterlife tortures (recall from Dahl: toothless, and with bones will gnaw – a clear hint of worms), this, in our opinion, is a purely Christian motive: you will ruin your soul, you will not gain immortality, vile worms will devour you in the mortal earth. Such a worm lives according to Russian ideas and in the human soul – this is the punishing conscience. In part, a number of "conscience wakes up, moves" can also be attributed here. 

3. Liquid. The rudiments of two other images are also obvious – conscience-liquid (a drop of conscience, the remnants of conscience) and conscience-object (to have, to lose conscience). The first connotation is associated with a special relationship between conscience and soul: many contexts convince us that conscience is localized, as well as the soul, in the human chest, and perhaps conscience, often manifesting emotionally, is thought of as part of the soul, the image of which we have already described. The connotation "subject" can equate conscience with a set of laws (the legislative function of conscience): if you have lost your conscience, it means that you have lost your moral guidelines, code of conduct, rules dictated by conscience.

                      Representations of the concept of "conscience" in French cultureThe French word and the concept of conscience, meaning both conscience and consciousness, (which in itself is significant) was borrowed in the XII century from Latin ^[4].

Conscientia, in turn, is formed from con and scire, that is, "to know together". Conscientia - knowledge shared with everyone, in its meaning fluctuated between "trust" and "complicity, collusion". The word was often used to denote clear knowledge born inside a person, and thus developed another meaning – "intimate feeling", moral knowledge, that is, an intuitive idea of what is good and what is bad. The word was borrowed into Romance languages with this meaning ("intuitive knowledge of good and evil"), the only one known before the XVII century. In the process of using the word, this meaning weakened, remaining in the expressions bonne conscience, en son ame et conscience etc. Some classical usages retain traces of the ancient localization of conscience in the stomach and chest, because they beat themselves in the chest when they repent. Hence the expressions mettre la map a la conscience, as well as se mettre un verre de vin sur la conscience ^[5]. Russian Russian language points out that the French conscience here is synonymous with the Russian soul, which, as we said, is used in the idiom, "to take a glass for the soul." The concept of conscience has been used in religious and professional contexts. It got into the professional sphere from the printing business, which flourished at the monasteries. This has its own logic: book business is a scrupulous business, and careless attitude to it (first–printed books – mainly the Bible and the works of the Church Fathers) should have caused pangs of conscience – des scrupules. It is with this fact that we would venture to explain a separate word in the French language, denoting the pangs of conscience, originally associated with the idea of careful performance of work.

In modern language , the word conscience has the following meanings:

1. Consciousness; 2. (Consciousness morale) Conscience.

The second meaning of this word is defined as follows: "The ability to have moral and value assessments of their actions. As such, consciousness can have two states: bonne consciousness – the state of someone who has nothing to reproach himself with and mauvaise consciousness - a painful feeling arising from the realization of his own bad deed." The concept of "conscience professionnelle", which has already been discussed earlier, also stands out. The word conscience with the meaning "conscience" has the following compatibility in modern French:

Une conscience droite, nette, integre, pure, tourmentee, ulceree, elastique, large, legere, timoree;

Capitulation de conscience; cas de conscience, debat de conscience; examen de conscience;

Objection de conscience, prise de conscience, scrupules de conscience, le tribunal de conscience;

Directeur de conscience; la voix de la conscience; parler, agir selon, suivant sa conscience.

par acquit de conscience; avoir la conscience en paix, en repos; capituler, pactiser, transiger avec sa conscience; liberer, soulager sa conscience (par des aveux, des remords, le repentir), bourreler; il a une faute, un poids sur la conscience; dans sa conscience; la main sur la conscience; je vous le dis en mon ame et conscience (sermon); avoir, se donner bonne conscience; une conscience douloureuse; decharger sa conscience, acquiter sa conscience;

au for de sa conscience; conduire la conscience de qn; descendre dans sa conscience;

etre en regle avec sa conscience; se mettre qch sur la conscience; troubler sa conscience, alarmer sa conscience; detruire, deteriorer sa conscience; la conscience endurcie; voix, cri de la conscience; interroger sa conscience; la conscience resiste, capitule 

From the above compatibility, we see that conscience appears to be clearly formed at the figurative level and has a number of the following connotations:

1. A weak enemy. Conscience in the French use of this word appears as a being hostile to a person with whom he enters into an active relationship, often resembling a war or a deal. A person tries to break it either by force or by diplomatic skill. In this war, conscience is presented as a weak, inferior principle to man. Anyway, the idea of war and the image of conscience in this war are expressed in the following combinations: une conscience timoree, capitulation de conscience, pactiser, transiger avec sa conscience, alarmer la conscience de qn. Often conscience itself is a carrier of internal contradictions, internal war: debates de conscience, conscience en paix, en repos. Peaceful clarification of relations with conscience is possible by analogy with social ways of settling conflicts: acquiter sa conscience, etre en regle avec sa conscience, negocier avec sa conscience. From these examples, we see that the French conscience is not only a weak and manipulated being, but also ready to compromise and give in. The same idea of conscience is reflected in combinations that emphasize the active, leading role of a person in relation to his own or someone else's conscience: directeur de conscience, conduire la conscience de qn, examen de conscience, interroger sa conscience;  

2. The tool. In French, conscience is also reified, and in the subject-conscience, the idea of the possibility of adapting conscience to one's needs is emphasized with the same expressiveness. Conscience in this hypostasis can be direct and integral, but a person turns out to be able to destroy it or spoil it, that is, to affect it negatively. He is also able to secure a good conscience (se donner bonne conscience). 

3. Fabric. The association of conscience with fabric emphasizes their functioning within a single philosophical and mythological system. Conscience-the fabric is stretchable, wide, that is, it can accommodate a lot, it can be clean and "wrinkled", in folds, that is, its smoothness and purity in this case is violated. 

4. Scales. Conscience in French is also associated with the idea of internal balance (libra), which is disturbed when a burden, heaviness, falls on the conscience.

5. Basement. Conscience is also associated with a certain depression, a kind of basement inside a person, where he can go down and there hear a voice, a cry of conscience, it is there that he can talk to her. It is inside a person, like an organ, that there is a painful, wounded conscience, a conscience that has lost peace, a conscience that has hardened, that is, has lost signs of life. It is important to note that the French conscience, according to our data, cannot torment a person, cannot act actively towards him, but can only be tormented, suffer as a result of his actions.

In other words, we see that the French consciousness has "solved" the problem of conscience, has found ways to adapt this somewhat inconvenient invention of Christian morality. 

Activity, socialization, pragmatism to some extent prevailed over the Christian idea of man's responsibility to God for his actions, to a greater extent the idea of social responsibility for his well-being, responsibility for his actions from the point of view of their practical expediency, and not from the point of view of the abstract good, turned out to be organic. It is obvious that the ancient systemic worldview attitudes in terms of the concept of conscience turned out to be stronger than the Christian ones, a person found a way out of the situation in which Christian ideology put him, which ultimately did not prevent him from sharing Christianity at the level of ritual and socially adequate behavior. A kind of conformism peculiar to the French conscience also explains the effectiveness of this ideological system, which is able to reconcile the irreconcilable and remain a winner, at least in the area that concerns the effectiveness of actions.

Representation of the concept of "conscience" in Chinese cultureThe Chinese semantic field of the concept of "conscience" is represented by the following lexemes: li?ngzh?, li?ngx?n, x?ng?n.

I. The lexeme li?ngzh? consists of two morphemes: ? li?ng and ? zh?.

The hieroglyph? li?ng is a hieroglyph of the pictorial category. According to the etymology of the hieroglyph, Chinese linguists still have disputes. Of these , two of the most popular theories of the origin of the hieroglyph can be distinguished: 

1. Initially, the hieroglyph was interchangeable with the hieroglyph ? li?ng and had the meaning "bridge" ^{[6, p. 479]}. 

2. Initially, the hieroglyph had the meaning "sifting the crop through a sieve and obtaining pure grain" ^{[7, p. 334]}.

However, no matter what theory, the original meaning of the hieroglyph is lost: the hieroglyph underwent a semantic and graphic transformation, that is, since the Zhanguo period (475-221 BC), the hieroglyph has changed greatly not only in spelling, but also in meaning. If we turn to the meaning of the character in the first kanji dictionary shu? w?n ji? z? "the simple Explanation and interpretation of complex characters", written in the Eastern Han dynasty (25-220 years), it gave the following definition: "" li?ng, sh?ny? "? means good" ^{[8, p. 111]}.

The hieroglyph ? zh? is a hieroglyph of the phonetic category, the original meaning of the hieroglyph is "knowledge" ^{[6, p. 473]}. The hieroglyph consists of the key ? sh?, which, in addition to the phonetic function, also has the meaning "arrow" ^{[6, p. 471]}, which indicates a connection with hunting or military operations, and the part ? k?u, indicating a connection with the oral transmission of information. Therefore, the initial meaning of the hieroglyph could be "oral transmission of hunting or military experience."

Thus, in the Chinese language, semantically, the concept of "conscience" is a combination of kindness and knowledge. To find out the reason for this compatibility, we need to delve into Chinese philosophy. 

The concept of li?ngzh? was first used by the most important representative of the Confucian tradition – Meng-tzu (372-289 BC), who was the founder of the doctrine of man's natural inclination to good. He believed that a person from birth has ? r?n "humanity", ? y? "justice", ? l? "decency", ? zh? "wisdom" and his nature is inclined to goodness. Describing the nature of man in his treatise "Mencius", a philosopher indirectly touched on the concept of conscience: "" R?n zh? su? xu? ?r b? n?ng zh?, q? li?ng n?ng y?; su? b? l? ?r zh? zh?, q? li?ngzh? y?. "The ability that a person possesses without learning is called ; the knowledge that a person has without the process of thinking is called " ^{[9; hereafter our translation. - N. E.]}. From this quote, it can be seen that Meng-tzu finds a parallel between innate abilities and conscience, showing that a person has a conscience from birth and it is a natural good. 

However, the understanding of conscience as an important philosophical term and a separate doctrine occurred in China only in the Ming Dynasty, in the works of the Neo-Confucian philosopher Wang Yangming (1472-1529), who, under the influence of the aforementioned philosophical idea of Meng-tzu, created his theory of morality based on conscience. As it is written in Tian Wei's article "On Wang Yangming's Moral Philosophy based on "conscience"" ^{[10, p. 9]}, Wang Yangming believes that conscience is innate, serves as the source and basis of morality, as well as the standard of right and wrong, good and evil.

Thus, the important question of what is good and evil was solved. After all, these concepts were created by man: there are no criteria in nature that define good and evil, but all people understand these concepts. This confirms that the knowledge of good and evil, as well as the ability to distinguish between good and evil in humans, is innate and is called conscience. In addition, this philosophical concept emphasizes that every person's conscience is the same and people do evil deeds only because passion overcomes conscience and people stop feeling it. 

The peculiarities of the perception of Chinese philosophy are certainly reflected in the Chinese language. Token li?ngzh? in the Chinese language can be combined in the following way: y?u li?ngzh? "to have a conscience"?m?iy?u li?ngzh? "not to have a conscience" b?oli? li?ngzh? "keep conscience" li?ngzh? w?i m?n "conscience is not completely died" li?ngzh? m?nmi? "conscience destroyed," hu?nq? li?ngzh? "awaken the conscience" zh?ohu? li?ngzh? "return conscience" sh?q? li?ngzh? "lose conscience" g?nsu? li?ngzh? "follow conscience" sh?uzh? li?ngzh? "keep conscience" b?ip?n li?ngzh? "betray conscience", w?sh? li?ngzh? "ignore conscience", w?if?n li?ngzh? "contrary to conscience."  

From these combinations with verbs, we see that conscience is associated with a guide or a wise friend: a person may not obey him, even lose him, then a person will go the wrong way, that is, he will be closer to evil. Also, a person can follow his conscience and, if he has not completely lost it, he is able to regain his conscience and thus approaches the good.  

II. The lexeme li?ngx?n consists of two morphemes: ? li?ng and ? x?n.

The hieroglyph ? x?n is a hieroglyph of the pictorial category. The initial meaning of the hieroglyph is "heart", then the hieroglyph became associated with various abstract concepts that in the Chinese worldview are associated with the heart: soul, feelings, etc. ^{[6, p. 924]}. 

This perception of conscience as a combination of "goodness" and "heart" is also the result of Confucian philosophy: this token was first used by the philosopher Mencius in the treatise "Mencius": "" Su? c?n h? r?n zh?, r?ny? q? w? zh? x?n z?i? Q? su?y? f?ng q? li?ngx?n zh?, y? y?u f? j?n zh? y? m? y?, d?n d?n ?r f? zh?, k?y? w?i m?i h "Is there no humanity and justice in a person's heart? The reason why people lose their heartfelt kindness is the same. As if you chop down a tree with an axe all the time, how can it flourish?" ^[11]. This phrase also traces the idea that conscience, which initially supports a person's natural inclination for good, is planted inside a person. Later, the great Confucian philosopher Zhu Xi (1130-1200) supplemented this idea in the "Collection with Comments for Meng-tzu": ", " Li?ngx?n zh?, b?n r?n zh? sh?nx?n. J? su?w?i r?ny? zh? x?n y?. "Conscience is the good that is inherent in a person from birth, that is, the so–called humanity and justice of the heart" ^[12]. It is no coincidence that in modern Chinese the lexemes "original intention" and "genuine intention" are synonymous with the word "conscience", this once again shows that conscience in this sense is a morality that is inclined to good and has existed in a person since his birth. 

This word is used more in spoken language, one of the evidence which may serve as the fact that all of Proverbs related to the notion of conscience in modern Chinese language, using just a token , for example: "poverty causes treacherous plans, wealth increases conscience", "the Dog ate conscience" (figurative meaning: "shameless"), "If a person's conscience, so the dog will stop eating crap" (figurative meaning: "a person has no conscience"), etc. This shows that, in addition to Confucian reflections, the cognitive approach of the Chinese people to the idea of conscience was also carried out through this lexeme. 

The lexeme in the Chinese language can be combined in the following way: m?iy?u li?ngx?n "not to have a conscience"?y?u li?ngx?n "to have a conscience" m?i li?ngx?n "hide conscience" w?ib?i li?ngx?n "to go against conscience" li?ngx?n de qi?nz? "the condemnation of conscience" y?zh?o li?ngx?n "according to conscience," p?ng li?ngx?n "to rely on the conscience," sh?di?o li?ngx?n "lose conscience," li?ngx?n de z?b?i "the reproaches of conscience," d?t?ng li?ngx?n "to obey conscience," li?ngx?n f?xi?n "conscience found", sh?di?o li?ngx?n "lost consciences", ch?m?i li?ngx?n "sell conscience", li?ngx?n b?'?n "troubled conscience", qu?f? li?ngx?n "lack of conscience", du?b?q? li?ngx?n "to be guilty conscience," li?ngx?n b? y?nx? "conscience will not allow", li?ngx?n ju?d?ng "decision of conscience", li?ngx?n de zh?yu? "limitations of conscience", li?ngx?n de s?mi? "death of conscience."

It is easy to see that in this perception of conscience, the role of a person can be both active and passive. Conscience, as the inner voice of a person, worries about him, does not allow him to do anti-moral acts, reproaches a person after committing evil. And a person in response can act in two ways: 1. Listen and act based on your conscience, that is, go for good. 2. Do not listen and go against your conscience, that is, go to evil. In this perception, conscience also acts as a guide leading a person to good. 

III. The lexeme a? x?ng?n consists of two morphemes: a x x?n and a ? g?n.

In Chinese, the meaning of "heart", and ? g?n has the meaning of "liver", so the direct translation of this lexeme will be "heart and liver". This compatibility indicates the connection of the origin of this token with Chinese medicine.

In Chinese medicine, there is the concept of "five organs", which includes the heart, liver, spleen, lungs and kidneys. The heart is the most important organ, as it is written in the treatise "Huangdi Neijing": "For the human body, the heart is like an emperor responsible for feeling, consciousness and other thought processes" ^{[13, p. 32]}. If we talk specifically about the sensory functions of a person, then the liver is responsible for regulating the emotional activity of a person, therefore, in the "Huangdi Neijing" it is described as a general responsible for stratagems ^{[13, p. 32]}. 

Both organs are important components of the human body responsible for sensitive and emotional functions, therefore, when using the old literary Chinese language, the lexeme ? x x?ng?n could mean "sincere feelings". In modern Chinese, in addition to the designation of conscience, this word has the meaning of "the most beloved person", which is most often used for children, because protecting a loved one, first of all your child, is also a natural good, the most sincere spiritual manifestation, so it is not strange that in modern Chinese this word can have there is also such a value. 

ConclusionsThe concept of conscience in the three cultures is completely different: in Russian culture, conscience is associated with knowledge and shared knowledge: this word is a tracing paper from a Greek word, which led it to a central position in the Slavic linguistic consciousness, closely related to the Orthodox tradition.

In French culture, the conscience of scientific and medical Latin origin, it was more often used in religious and professional contexts. In Chinese culture, conscience had a strong connection with the innate sense of goodness in a person, which entered the Chinese language thanks to the philosophical teachings of Meng-tzu. In addition, in the Chinese language there is a connection between conscience and Chinese medicine, which shows the adaptation of conscience from a philosophical view to the universal. Therefore, it is no coincidence that conscience acquires an absolutely different objective image in different cultures: for a Russian person, conscience is an internal strict judge, in most cases it brings pain to a person if he has committed evil, a person can only passively take blows from conscience; for the French, conscience is knowledge shared with everyone, without a tinge of power over a person, contexts they show that conscience is often inferior to a person; he has many tools to reach a compromise with it.  For the Chinese, conscience is a companion or guide that a person can follow, but can also deny it, and in different situations a person plays different roles: he can either accept the reproaches of conscience, or choose whether to follow his conscience or not.

The ideas of Russians, French and Chinese about conscience: