Running as a Means of Teaching and Upbringing in the Theoretical Heritage and Pedagogical Practices of Outstanding Russian Researchers of Physical Culture of the Second Half of the XIX - early XX Centuries

Kannykin Stanislav Vladimirovich PhD in Philosophy Associate professor of the Department of Humanities at Stary Oskol Technological Institute named after A. Ugarov, branch of National University of Science and Technology "MISIS" 309516, Russia, Belgorod Region, Stary Oskol, micro district Makarenko, 42 stvk2007@yandex.ru Other publications by this author

The study of the theoretical heritage and pedagogical practices of outstanding Russian researchers of physical culture is always relevant, since their concepts of personal development through motor activity are based on fundamental knowledge, usually covering various scientific fields (pedagogy, biology, medicine, world history of physical culture, ethnography, philosophy, military affairs, etc.), as well as a rich personal experience in organizing educational and educational activities. In their works, we find important ideas and recommendations for the formation of a harmoniously developed personality in the educational process, attached to such values as kalokagathy, health care, constant self-development, discipline, responsibility and honesty in competitions.

Of particular interest are the works of the enlighteners of the second half of the XIX – early XX century, who stood at the origins of the formation of the national system of physical education. We are talking about Polikarp Vasilyevich Tikhanovich (1813-1888), the director The First Kharkiv Gymnasium and Professor of Kharkiv University; Anders Georg (Andrey Georgievich) Berglinde (1823-1899) ? gymnasium patriarch of the Medical and Gymnastic Society in St. Petersburg; Peter Frantsevich Lesgaft (1837-1909) – the creator of Russia's first scientific system of physical education, an outstanding biologist, physician, teacher;  Yegor (Georgy) Arsenievich Pokrovsky (1834-1895) – pediatrician and teacher who studied children's folk games and their role in the educational process; Alexey Dmitrievich Butovsky (1838-1917) – military teacher and popularizer of the Olympic movement, Barnabas Efimovich Ignatiev (1859-1927) – teacher-organizer, school hygienist, doctor of medicine, as well as their students and followers (for example, V. G. Ukhov, a gymnastics teacher at military educational institutions in St. Petersburg). Their unifying principle and common merit is the formation of a comprehensive system of physical education, which reflects the latest achievements of natural sciences and humanities, the best forms and methods of personality development of Western culture (starting with the pentathlon of Antiquity and ending with modern gymnastics systems), as well as Russian folk elements of physical improvement, primarily games.

Problem statement

The subject of this study is their understanding of the educational potential of running as the most accessible and attractive type of motor activity for children, providing comprehensive personal development. What is the reason for today's interest in running exercises? First of all, the state of health of the younger generation of Russians and the problems of modern domestic education. Thus, L. V. Verkeeva points to a forty percent decrease in the vital capacity of the lungs of Russian high school students compared to their peers of the Soviet period ^{[6, p. 119]}; in ^{[8, p. 74]} it is noted that there is a tendency to increase the number of overweight children, adolescents and young men, and the mass use of computer technologies, which are not only as a means of education, but also leisure "reduces the motor activity not only of the younger generation, but also of society as a whole"; I. K. Latypov draws attention to the fact that "with the beginning of children's schooling, their daily motor activity decreases by about two times ..., which leads to diseases of the cardiovascular system, the formation of pathology of the musculoskeletal system, an increase in injuries" ^{[16, p. 102]}; in ^{[21, p. 10]}, the deterioration of the mental health of Russian schoolchildren and an increase in the number of suicides are recorded mainly due to chronic depression (almost three times higher than the global average!), as well as the prevalence of alcoholism and drug addiction among adolescents. There is no need to prove that year-round systematic running exercises increase lung capacity, effectively reduce weight, improve the condition of the cardiovascular and musculoskeletal systems ("... running exercises are useful for straightening the spine, since the running posture is highly conducive to the upright holding of the body and the unfolded position of the shoulders" ^{[2, p. 268]}), and endorphins produced by the body during running improve the mental state of a person, making it unnecessary to artificially cheer up the psyche with alcohol and drugs.

As for physical education in Russian schools, the researchers note the following problems:

– the lag in the field of physical education from other areas of education and upbringing, which is manifested both in the insufficient attention to it of the leadership of pedagogical organizations, parents and students themselves, primarily concerned about the successful completion of the OGE and USE (where physical education is not included), and in the low effectiveness of physical education classes themselves, since "indicators of physical fitness modern schoolchildren achieve only 60 percent of the results of their peers in the 60s and 70s of the last century" ^{[16, p. 102]};

– "... the widespread introduction of yoga, wushu, karate and other "fashionable" sports and directions into school curricula for us" ^{[8, p. 74]}, based on specific spiritual practices, including those working with the unconscious, the influence of which on children has not been studied sufficiently;    

– often the authoritarian style of behavior of teachers, thereby ensuring discipline, and the compulsory nature of classes, almost entirely aimed at preparing for compliance with standards and not assuming an individual trajectory of physical development of students ^{[8, p. 74],[15, p. 39]};

- children often have a fear of physical education lessons ^{[14, p. 234]}, associated, for example, with the teacher's excessive enthusiasm for projectile gymnastics, which requires considerable time to form the necessary strength and coordination, which is difficult for many children to achieve due to weakened health and insufficient hours to prepare for such exercises;

- in most families, there are no traditions of physical education, while the older the child gets, the more time he spends on "serious" subjects at the insistence of his parents, including by reducing physical activity;

- a common place in the work of researchers is to emphasize the low motivation of children in physical education classes: solving private tasks of forming a particular skill under the guidance of a teacher, they do not adequately realize its critical importance for health conservation, as well as its importance for intellectual growth, personal and future professional development, they do not develop the need for constant physical activity, which they must carry from school to old age. 

Again, turning to systematic running, we note that this type of physical activity, like other cyclic aerobic exercises, promotes neurogenesis ^{[7, p. 66]}, which provides at the physiological level prerequisites for solving various tasks that become increasingly complicated with the child's growing up. Running, which is natural and desirable for a child, relieves fatigue from learning activities, gives emotional relief, and the variety of its types allows you to individualize the learning process. Running activity is publicly available:  a student may be afraid of performing a support jump over a gymnastic goat, but hardly anyone is afraid to run the distance of the gym in a game or relay race. Joint wellness running of children and parents is already the norm for many, strengthening the family, and who better can promote a healthy lifestyle than tens of thousands of runners on urban runs (including children), and active longevity based on physical education is better than runners 80-90 years old, overcoming marathon distances? Today, the running subculture unites millions of people around the world, becoming a marker of belonging to the progressive part of humanity and providing its "need for the main engine of development – purposeful, physically and mentally developed, striving for continuous improvement, "environmentally loaded", harmoniously combining healthy individualism and collectivism, benevolent, self-reliant and appreciating fair the competition of personality" ^[13]. It should be noted that the average global age of an amateur runner, according to Michael Thomsen [Thomsen M. More women than men now run marathons - and runners have never been older with an average age of 39, study finds // URL: https://www.dailymail.co.uk/sciencetech/article-7538869/More-women-men-run-marathons-runners-never-older-average-age-39.html (date of application: 13. 09. 2022)], is 39.3 years old, which is very far from school years, and an analysis of the literature (recently many popular books have been published in Russia describing personal experience of running and overcoming the first marathon) shows that the main incentives for running activity are overweight and other health problems, depression, the desire to diversify one's life, corporate events, "running tourism", fashion, etc., but not school physical education classes, which, in theory, should have laid down an understanding of the importance of physical activity for life and instill a love for its simplest and most accessible form ? running.

Thus, it can be stated the special importance of running locomotion to increase interest in physical education and their quality, as well as the formation of a sustainable need for health care by means of physical activity. This is the reason for the appeal to the successful experience of educational and educational activities with the active use of running and running exercises by outstanding Russian teachers of the period under review.           

Reception by Russian teachers of the second half of the XIX - early XX century of the humanistic content of running in Ancient Greece

According to N. V. Rekutina, the interest of Russian teachers of the second half of the XIX – early XX century in the ancient Greek education system was largely dictated by the success of the national liberation revolution of the Greeks (1821-1829), who escaped from Turkish oppression. The struggle of the Orthodox Greeks for freedom was warmly supported by all strata of Russian society, and the question naturally arose about the spiritual origins of Greek dedication and desire for freedom, which, of course, were sought in the foundations of the culture of this people. In this regard, "carefully studying various aspects of ancient history, the founders of Russian antiquity paid considerable attention to ancient Greek agonistics, considering it among religious antiquities, and gymnastics, understanding it as an important part of the upbringing of a person in ancient Greece" ^[24]. It seems to us that Russian teachers in ancient gymnastics were most attracted by its humanistic pathos associated with the desire for kalokagathy – the holistic development of a person, his achievement of a high level and harmony of physical and spiritual qualities of personality. Thus, V. G. Ukhov believed that gymnastics, inheriting the ancient tradition, should physically strengthen a person's strength, and give dexterity, agility, ease of execution, grace and sharpness to all his movements. "These qualities, in turn, develop the moral side in a person, mainly: self-confidence, presence of mind, cheerfulness and courage" ^{[27, p. 71]}.

Turning to running, which was an element of both agonistics and palaestrika (gymnastics), P. V. Tikhanovich believed that this type of locomotion was a favorite exercise of the Greeks, since it assumed imitation of the gods and heroes of Greek mythology ? Hercules, Achilles, Odysseus, Antilochus, Ajax, famous for their victories in running competitions. It should be noted that the Greek, who participated, for example, in the Olympic Games, where running was the only type of competition in the first thirteen competitions, himself claimed the status of a hero, confirming the outstanding physical and moral qualities necessary for this status with an honest and objectively recorded victory (unlike the types where the judges awarded the victory) on the cross-country agone. P. V. Tikhanovich lists different types of competitive running in Antiquity, draws attention to the importance of its applied significance for the training of warriors, the benefits for restoring health ("... they pointed to the Orchomenean Laomedon, who, suffering from spleen, began to practice running on the advice of doctors, which not only restored his health, but also became one of the wonderful runners in Greece" ^{[26, p. 249]}), and in conclusion notes that "... running exercise was recognized by ancient philosophers and doctors as one of the most beneficial exercises: it not only developed and strengthened the body, but also gave it good looks and accustomed it to beautiful and dexterous movements" ^{[26, p. 252]}.  

A. G. Berglinda is interested in the types of running inherent in certain areas of Ancient Greece. We are talking about "... 1) running with burning torches, and it was required that the torches did not go out while running; 2) running alternately back and forth; 3) running with a quick wave of the hands" ^{[1, p. 7]}. He also emphasized that in the Doric states running was the main exercise for girls, and running competitions for adults and teenagers differed in the length of the distance. 

E. A. Pokrovsky, anticipating his essay on the development of physical culture, poses two questions: "1. Is it possible to find out at least partially the historical successes of the physical and mental development of peoples better known in the world? 2. On the basis of what data of physiology and hygiene is it best to build the correct harmonious development of a young organism?" ^{[23, p. 11]}. Answering these questions, Pokrovsky emphasizes that in Ancient Greece, Ancient Rome and England of the nineteenth century ("modern Greeks are English in terms of physical exercises" ^{[23, p. 13]}) running was practiced in a playful way and necessarily outdoors, being an obligatory component of physical education of the younger generation all age groups. Having adopted the diverse culture of running from Antiquity and transferred it to the sports plane, the British achieved that "... English youth is considered the best in terms of harmonious development of mind and body" ^{[23, p. 13]}), which, of course, I would like to wish the Russian youth.

P. F. Lesgaft created one of the best essays for his time on the history of the development of physical culture ^{[17, pp. 87-286]}. He had a special reverence for the ancient Greek practices of child development, emphasizing that it was on the basis of physical training that all personality qualities were formed: "Ancient Greece, from where classical education originates, understood the nature of the child and the conditions of his education so well that, based on everyday experience, the Greek sages established compulsory physical education for themselves, in order to to teach a young man to control himself, his passions and needs; they did not necessarily have a mental education. They checked their mental education by visiting all their existing institutions and observing the manifestations of social life. From all this it follows what importance should be attached to physical education at school" ^{[18, p. 323]}. P. F. Lesgaft analyzes the specifics of running exercises used in Ancient Greece for general physical development. His attention is attracted by simple running, double running with an arc-shaped turn, long running, running in full armor, running with torches, running forward and backward without turns, running on socks with rapid movement of outstretched arms for balance, running with a vine in his hands, which was carried from the temple of Dionysus to the temple of Athena. P. F. Lesgaft sees the value of these running practices in the fact that they contributed to the formation of the skill of choosing the optimal bodily actions, discipline and self-control to achieve the goal, strengthened the body, promoted intellectual development, the ability to differentiate "impressions received", as well as accurately express their feelings and thoughts.  

V. E. Ignatiev notes that, being a part of gymnastics, running was used for civic education in Ancient Greece, preparing young men for competitions, winning which they brought (according to the beliefs of that time) the protection and help of the gods to all residents of their polis. This desire among athletes was so great that sometimes at the finish of a long run ("dolichos") they fell from exhaustion, and "... Pausanias tells about the Spartan Lad (Ladas), who remained the winner at the Olympic Games in running, but died immediately after the end of the competition" ^{[10, p. 14]}. Another example of Stayer's civic valor, cited by V. E. Ignatiev, is the case of Euchides, who, after the desecration of the fire in Plataea by the Persians, ran to the sacred fire from the altar of Apollo in Delphi and immediately went to Plataea with a torch lit from there, thus overcoming about 173 versts without rest in a day, which was worth it his life. It was important for the Russian researcher to note that it was the ancient Greek long-distance runners who gave impressive examples of sacrificial service to the Fatherland, the memory of which has survived for millennia.

A. D. Butovsky draws attention to the fact that ancient runners publicly competed naked, so that they took care of their appearance, and running without clothes contributed to the hardening of the body. It is important for the researcher to emphasize the aesthetic function of running, since "a free Greek differed from a barbarian and a slave by an elegant gait" ^{[3, p. 189]}. A.D. Butovsky describes the differences between educational and competitive running, the customs of running competitions and the peculiarities of preparing ancient Greek athletes for them. Noting the simplicity and naturalness of running practices, as well as other exercises of ancient Greek gymnastics, he concludes: "No nation in the world has achieved such great results as the Greeks through the realization of harmony of bodily and spiritual development" ^{[3, p. 193]}. The researcher focuses on another very important function of the running competitions of Antiquity – being the most important part of the festive games of the people, they elevated and strengthened the sense of national unity, embodied the Greek spirit: "here the Hellene enjoyed admiring the courage of young people, the beauty of their naked bodies and the amazing slimness of the camp, extreme dexterity, irresistible strength, bravery, love of glory, freedom-loving mood and a tireless rush to victory..." ^{[3, p. 194]}. Having witnessed the first revived Olympic Games in Greece in 1896, A.D. Butovsky left an impressive description of the triumph of the Greek people, inspired by the victory of his compatriot in marathon running, which, in terms of achievement and public attention, became the main type of competition at the first Olympics of our time. The Greeks saw in this sensational victory of an ordinary peasant, the water carrier Spyridon Louis, who was ahead of famous athletes from more developed countries in a hard struggle, a symbolic expression of the vicissitudes of largely tragic Greek history and the revival of the victorious spirit of a nation ready for new achievements. And it is significant that this victory was achieved in the race so appreciated by the Greeks.    

Thus, the outstanding Russian teachers of the second half of the XIX – early XX centuries were characterized by the search for historical patterns of harmonious personality development. Being patriots, they wished their Fatherland the same outstanding successes that the ancient Greeks and other peoples achieved in material and spiritual culture, seeing the foundation of their achievements in the correct formation of personality and wishing to transfer to the national soil the best systems of physical education, one of the effective means of which was running. Turning to the ideals of Antiquity, expressed in the running component of gymnastics and agonistics, they thereby ensured the humanistic orientation of the educational process.        

 The educational and educational functions of running in the light of the principles of pedagogical activity implemented by Russian researchers of physical culture in the second half of the XIX - early XX century

Without setting the task of discussing and clarifying the basic concepts of pedagogy, we will accept their definitions, which, in our opinion, are sufficiently justified in the works of modern domestic researchers of educational activity. Thus, A. A. Huseynov reveals the content of education, upbringing and education in the following way: "Learning is the process of transferring knowledge and skills from those who possess them to those who do not possess them. Education is the purposeful social and moral discipline of individuals (mainly children and young men) on the part of those who, in one form or another, are authorized by the society to be educators. Education is an institutionalized unity of education and upbringing" ^{[9, p. 88]}. Also important for further presentation of the material is the concept of "pedagogical principle", the definition of which we find in the work of A.V. Khutorsky: "Pedagogical principle is a normative provision that is based on pedagogical regularity and characterizes the strategy of solving pedagogical problems" ^[28]. How did the outstanding Russian teachers of the period under review implement pedagogical principles through running practices and what did they see as the educational and educational functions of running? To answer this question, it is important to note beforehand that there is no exhaustive "canonical" list of principles of pedagogy, the ranges of their content are quite wide, besides they are formulated variably, which expresses the creative nature and dynamism of educational activities.  This state of affairs makes it possible to choose principles in accordance with the purpose of the study and in invariant definitions. 

1. The principle of naturalness of Ya. A. Kamensky. Note that in accordance with this principle, in the second half of the 19th century, running and other "natural" exercises (such as jumping, throwing and games) were opposed to the increasingly fashionable mainly projectile ("German", "Swedish" and "French") gymnastics and sports.

Thus, for V. E. Ignatiev, the natural nature of running is important, since this movement is "prompted by instinct" ^{[10, p. 12]}, and due to the great danger to the health of running fatigue, V. E. Ignatiev notes that a long run "should not be started ... by a young man before the age of 17", since "it is not finished the development of internal organs, and in particular the heart, with increased stress during running can be accompanied by severe, difficult-to-eliminate bouts of fatigue" ^{[10, p.130]}.

V. G. Ukhov draws attention to the fact that "the duration and speed of running depend a lot on the age, build and height of a person" ^{[27, p. 337]}, believes that the best weather for learning to run is clear and quiet, the air temperature is from 1 to 15 degrees Celsius, the terrain for this should be open, and the soil – smooth and solid, without stony ^{[27, p. 338]}.

P. F. Lesgaft has repeatedly stressed that running, despite its naturalness and obvious benefits, since it involves almost the entire muscular system, is not used enough in physical education. It is absolutely in vain that "hardware gymnastics" is preferred to him, which is very traumatic and unnatural, since it develops the forelimbs as supporting limbs, and intense swinging movements generate dependence on too strong sensations, blunting the desire of students to engage in other types of physical activity: "Why use in school what can be harmful to a young person, and why not replace them with such exercises that can be well tested, and in fact turn out to be, without any doubt, useful, such as throwing, running, consistently conducted games, etc." ^{[20, p. 167]}.

The principle of naturalness in learning to run can also be traced in E. A. Pokrovsky, and at two levels – "external" and "internal". The "external" level assumes consideration of climatic conditions for running: "in our climate, it is best to encourage running in the coldest seasons of the year, namely: spring, autumn, winter, only, of course, not in frosts, and least of all should be encouraged in summer, especially in extreme heat" ^{[22, p. 98]}. The "internal" level captures the teacher's orientation to the specifics of the physiological and psycho-emotional development of children.  E. A. Pokrovsky defines that from a "sanitary and pedagogical" point of view, physical exercises should be accessible to everyone without exception, harmoniously develop all the vital forces of the child and "serve" in school as rest and pleasure after intensive mental work ^{[23, p. 14]}. Obviously, it is running in a playful way that best satisfies these natural physiological needs and desires of the child. In our opinion, E.A. Pokrovsky rejects school gymnastics classes (quite admitting them for adults) precisely due to the lack of their natural conformity to childhood, since they are unbearable for most students using projectiles, and those elementary exercises that are generally available (such as bends, turns, walking on socks, etc.) are "very annoying children are downright too ordinary, while, unfortunately, the teacher forces them to repeat more often and most of all, which causes excessive fatigue with the monotony, monotony of these movements" ^{[23, pp.16-17]}. The scientist believes that for the physical development of a child "... it is possible It is more energetic to promote the needs of the young body for blood circulation and the growth of substances. The best way to do this is to induce, within certain limits, increased lung activity with the help of running and other similar outdoor games, and not with the help of gymnastics..." ^{[23, p. 32]}. 

Discussing the essence of physical education, A.D. Butovsky believes that it should first of all form skills, without which a person cannot interact with the outside world, it is normal to exist in it. "The exercise of such skills is an instinctive, organic human need <...> he himself learns to walk, run, jump, take, throw, overcome some obstacles, passive and alive, swim, etc. In total, these exercises cover the entire body and develop it according to the plan outlined for man by nature" ^{[3, p. 240]}. Analyzing French school sports, A.D. Butovsky sees in it a violation of the principle of naturalness, asking: "... isn't sport sometimes capable of undermining a not very strong body? It is enough to see in what state some of those who competed in running even for short distances come to the goal in order to seriously think about this issue" ^{[2, p. 107]}. Referring to F. Lagrange, the Russian teacher draws attention to the fact that in many French lyceums, children take long walks on Thursdays. It does not take into account that although "running is a much stronger exercise than walking, and, however, the child tolerates long transitions very poorly, whereas he does not feel the slightest fatigue from constant erratic running during his games" ^{[3, p. 249]}. What is natural for an adult is often not suitable for a child, and vice versa. A.D. Butovsky, being a military teacher, follows the considered pedagogical principle when developing a methodology for teaching soldiers to run, pointing out that for the optimal organization of this process, a number of natural circumstances should be taken into account:  "a) the temperature of the air and the weather; b) the time of year in which running is carried out; c) the physique and health status of people" ^{[4, p. 31]}.

As can be seen, natural conformity in the organization of running classes is understood by Russian teachers as the development of a natural, instinctive need for movement, related to the natural characteristics of students, primarily age and health status. An important factor is the natural and climatic one, which requires taking into account different types of surface (ordinary earth, sand, swampy surface, etc.) and natural obstacles overcome by running.

2. The principle of cultural conformity of A. Disterveg, as is known, requires taking into account in the educational process the cultural characteristics of the social environment in which it is carried out. It is important to note here that in Slavic mythology, legs as a part of the body providing running locomotion had a predominantly negative connotation, since they are associated with the bodily bottom and chthon. Russian Russians imitated gods and heroes, while in Ancient culture a runner imitated gods and heroes, in the culture of Russians a person running without practical need in the public consciousness was often likened to evil spirits, like the demon of the field ("field") or shulikuns, who always ran ? according to the ideas of the peasants of the Russian North, these are demons of water and fire. It is not for nothing that the running action was part of some pagan rituals aimed at ingratiating themselves with various spirits. It is also noteworthy that in traditional Russian culture, specially organized running, which is not a component of the military game, was not prestigious and practically did not affect adult men and women. Competitive running ("running backwards") existed among children and youth, and was also an element of children's games, performing mainly a recreational function [See: 11].

 P. F. Lesgaft and E. A. Pokrovsky paid special attention to running as a component of folk children's games used in the educational process. Thus, P. F. Lesgaft in the "Manual on physical education of school–age children" describes 75 games, dividing them into imitative, imitation (most often preschool - "horses", "firefighters", "doctors", etc.) ^{[20, pp. 49-54]} and educational (school period) games. In the didactic theory of the educational game of the great Russian teacher, it is running that occupies a central place. Dividing the games into simple (individual) and complex (team, or "party") games, P. F. Lesgaft describes in sufficient detail 17 simple games based on running and 14 complex running games. So, at the elementary level, single-player running games should be used: "cats and mice", "harness", "geese–swans", "tag", "chanterelle", etc., in the middle and senior departments - complex "party" games: "catch up", "day and night", "run and run away", "fox hunting", "you will lose prisoners", "coward (wounded and killed)", "made a mistake", etc. Running in the game becomes, on the one hand, more emotionally intense, and on the other, it obeys strict game rules and the interests of the team. Thus, game running teaches the child to remain disciplined even in a situation of gambling excitement and emotional uplift.

E. A. Pokrovsky directly points out that "in the indigenous Russian population there are <...> games designed for one form or another of running" ^{[22, p. 99]}, to which he refers, for example, "horses", "cows", "tracks", "traps", etc. (total E.A. Pokrovsky lists 46 games ^{[22, pp. 99-117]}). The advantages of running games, expressing in a concentrated form the centuries-old experience of Russian folk pedagogy, the scientist refers to ^{[23, p. 11-23]} their holding outdoors, accessibility for all children, freedom and ease, harmonious development of all vital forces of the child, compliance with the "hygiene of the young body", ensuring spiritual development along with physical, emotional uplift and great interest of children, significant benefits for maintaining and improving health. The following remark by E. A. Pokrovsky is very important for understanding the principle of cultural conformity implemented in running games: "All games are based on certain national character traits. These same traits, of course, are best brought up through games" ^{[23, p. 36]}. One can agree with A. B. Sunik, who believed that "E. A. Pokrovsky should rightfully be recognized as the first ethnographer of Russian physical education, one of the first researchers of the national history of physical education" ^{[25, p. 55]}, who recognized running game as one of the most important and effective national forms of physical and moral improvement of personality.

A. D. Butovsky also draws attention to the importance of taking into account national cultural characteristics in the field of physical education: "Fast running in a large area is not at all in the nature of the Germans, just as indoor exercises in various pieces on Reck and Barren are not at all in the nature of the British" ^{[4, p. 194]}. Contrasting the Russian tradition of children's running games with gymnastic systems borrowed from the Germans, Swedes and French and mandatory for Russian schools, he notes the importance of the national character in the educational system of bodily exercises: "It will be something of its own, understandable, native, and therefore more attractive and more fruitful than the most impeccable in its logical construction, but a groundless system" ^{[4, p. 195]}.

 3. The principle of unity of knowledge and skills, consciousness and behavior.  An illustration of this principle can be found in the "Emile" of J.-J. Rousseau, A.D. Butovsky refers to this novel, quoting from it a famous quote: "If you want to develop the mind of your pupil, develop the forces that the mind should control. Exercise his body continuously; make him strong and healthy to make him wise and reasonable; let him work, act, run, scream, let him always be in motion: let him be an adult in strength, and he will soon be an adult in mind" ^{[3, p. 346]} and explaining on its basis the importance of physical exercises for the education and mental improvement of students. Russian teachers considered it very important to ensure the connection of bodily and intellectual development within the framework of physical education, achieving this by using a variety of running exercises.

For example, V. E. Ignatiev and P. F. Lesgaft were attracted by such a now–forgotten kind of running exercise as the ekpletridzein - running forward and backward without turning to the sixth part of the stage, called "plethr", which was run forward and backward without turning, consistently reducing the space so as to stop exactly in the middle, then the space being run is also evenly V. E. Ignatiev notes that "with this exercise, they learn to run without checking their eyesight, but only with one muscular sensation determine the amount of space traveled; in this regard, this is a very profitable exercise" ^{[10, pp. 14-15]}.

Distinguishing between "long" and "fast" running, P. F. Lesgaft determines that the first students are accustomed to perseverance of actions, and the second – to concentrated activity that requires significant stress in a short period. When performing running exercises, he constantly pays attention to their intellectual load: a running student must constantly compare the distance traveled, time and effort expended – this skill is the ability to "control himself" both at high speed in sprint running and in a situation of fatigue in stayer running. Moreover: "The student should be very familiar with both the size of his step when walking and with various types of running, and also know the time required for each type of step, so that with each type of running he can determine both the space that he ran and the time it took him to do so, and On the contrary, he should be able to determine the type of running if he is given space and time" ^{[18, p. 116]}. P. F. Lesgaft believes that running classes for high school students have as their cognitive goal the mastery of spatial relationships, which forms the ability to optimally distribute their physical activity over time. To achieve this goal, running with a metronome with slowing down and accelerating the pace is used; running for a while with the most accurate determination of the distance covered and running for a certain distance in order to test their assumptions about the time it took.

E. A. Pokrovsky, referring to running games, notes that with their help, a child, exercising body parts, learns their purpose and various ways of using them; he learns observation, reasoning abilities, and the desire for self-improvement awakens in him. The child also acquires the skills of determining distance and orientation in time, his mind becomes more lively, impressionable and sharper.

4. The principle of the connection of the pedagogical process with life and practice presupposes a two-pronged process: on the one hand, the orientation of education towards the formation of knowledge, skills and abilities that allow students to independently meet their practical needs and have, including physical abilities for successful professional activity, and on the other hand, it is necessary to convince them to take care of their health and to maintain by means of physical culture the bodily conditions necessary for successful functioning in society throughout life. In this regard, P. F. Lesgaft notes the importance of students understanding that "... the combination of developed mental activity with a very weak body <...> does not go unpunished, – it inevitably entails impotence of external manifestations: thought and understanding may be, but there will not be adequate energy for consistent verification of ideas and persistent implementation and application their practice" ^{[17, p. 289]}.

According to A. D. Butovsky, satisfying the need for "arbitrary movement" with running locomotion, a person "experiences that feeling of balance of all his physical and spiritual forces, which <...> increases his efficiency" ^{[3, p. 346]}. By improving endurance through running, a person "gets used to tension <...> and gives himself ... to work not only without a heavy feeling, but even with pleasure. By practicing overcoming obstacles <...> he develops perseverance and the ability to make a great, sometimes desperate effort of will. Examples are sports (running, rowing, etc.)" ^{[3, pp. 346-347]}.  In his opinion, the main task of physical education is not to master some kind of motor techniques, but to ensure "general adaptation to life requirements", while it is important that the school instill the habit of systematic physical exercises related to "elementary movement abilities", since "it is in these exercises that the key lies that general physical development and that general efficiency and vigor that a person needs, no matter what kind of life he prepares himself for" ^{[3, p. 242]}. 

Developing endurance through running games, the child, according to E. A. Pokrovsky, receives "the makings of fortitude, clarity of thought and that indestructibility of character that so clearly helps a person out in various everyday scrapes" ^{[23, p. 34]}. Running games teach a child to obey the rules, to be self-contained, disciplined, to shun vanity, self-will and all kinds of unbridledness:  "... the child learns to understand that in public affairs, they usually do not tolerate either sluggish, clumsy, or overly unbridled people who only interfere with their comrades here" ^{[23, p. 35]}. A.D. Butovsky rightly notes that running games, where children, for example, "chase each other, slapping harnesses", contribute to the elimination of "excessive physical impressionability" and fear of pain, allowing you to acquire "courageous qualities" underlying courage ^{[3, p. 347]}. 

P. V. Tikhanovich, V. G. Ukhov, P. F. Lesgaft and A. D. Butovsky emphasize the special importance of running exercises for military training. Thus, P. V. Tikhanovich notes that running with weapons in Ancient Greece "provided an excellent exercise for military service" ^{[26, p. 252]}, bearing in mind that since the 65th Olympiad hoplithodrom was practiced - running heavily armed infantrymen who competed in the speed of movement with a shield ("hoplon"), wearing greaves and a helmet. It was thanks to the intense running training of the Hoplites that the movements of the Greek troops against the enemies were often incredibly fast and strong. It is known that the Athenian army on the Marathon field moved against the Persians with such speed that they considered it a crowd of madmen" ^{[26, p. 252]}. V. G. Ukhov developed exercises for running schoolchildren with a stick that imitated a rifle, emphasizing that "rational gymnastics is the best preparation for students of educational institutions P. F. Lesgaft writes that throwing and running "constitute very essential elements of most military exercises, they constitute an advantageous preparatory school for shooting and for movements with varying speed" ^{[19, p. 305]}. Lieutenant General A.D. Butovsky considered running as part of military gymnastics, the preparation for which may be school gymnastics, which should form the endurance and speed abilities of future servicemen with running exercises, and therefore he divides running into two types: "measured running" and "accelerated running". The first type assumed overcoming significant distances in a closed formation, "when it becomes necessary to arrive at a certain point, important in its position or threatened by the enemy, when it is necessary to quickly pass the defile (narrow passages – S.K.), etc." ^{[4, p. 29]}. The second type was used to run small distances in all directions as quickly as possible in order to overcome the shelled space and to storm enemy positions. It is important to note that both P. F. Lesgaft and A.D. Butovsky strongly opposed the complete "militarization" of physical education, against the drill, which was often imposed by retired officers who did not have pedagogical education, who were attracted to teach in schools due to the extreme insufficiency of qualified specialists in the field of physical education in Russia in the second half of the XIX – early XX century. Running and games were not practiced in their classes, and almost all the time was devoted to drill exercises.

5. The principle of science is an essential component of the foundation of physical education systems developed by outstanding Russian teachers of the period under review. Combining pedagogical and educational activities with scientific ones, having for the most part academic degrees and titles, P. V. Tikhanovich, A. G. Berglind, P. F. Lesgaft, E. A. Pokrovsky, A.D. Butovsky, V. E. Ignatiev and V. G. Ukhov relied on the modern level of natural and social sciences and humanities. Thus, P. V. Tikhanovich creates one of the first scientific works in Russia devoted to the history of physical culture ? "An essay on gymnastic games among the ancient Greeks", which was published in 1856 in the Journal of the Ministry of National Education. A. G. Berglind in his "Essay on the History of Gymnastics" (1872) indicates that "conducting gymnastics should be as rational as possible, i.e. it should be based on scientific laws..." ^{[1, p. 75]}. V. E. Ignatiev echoes him: "Physical education <...> gives the right to look into the positive and negative sides of the influence of exercise, based on various theoretical and scientific premises" ^{[10, p. 3]}. In detail, on the basis of many sources of European authors, considering the running practices of Antiquity and revealing their significance for the harmonious formation of personality, P. V. Tikhanovich, A. G. Berglind and V. E. Ignatiev contributed a lot to the popularization of running exercises in educational institutions in Russia. 

E. A. Pokrovsky builds his concept of running children's games on the basis of ethnography, archaeology, anthropology and in connection with physiology, psychology, pedagogy and hygiene. A.D. Butovsky pays much attention to his contemporary scientific experience of physical education, describing, for example, the issues of school hygiene and physical education at the international congresses of 1910 in Paris and Brussels ^{[4, pp. 296-358]}, as well as reviewing the latest pedagogical works of Western scientists ^{[5, pp. 58-93]}. V. G. Ukhov prefaces the description of running exercises with an "Essay on the anatomy and physiology of the human body", where there is a special section "Movement. Moving" ^{[27, pp. 26-70]}.

Being a brilliantly educated scientist, professor, doctor of medicine and surgery, P. F. Lesgaft believed that pedagogy, which he considered as a branch of biology, should stand firmly on scientific ground, developing primarily on the basis of anatomy and physiology. In the light of the consistent implementation of the principle of science, P. F. Lesgaft's requirement to teach a child in physical education classes not by the method of "showing", but by "word" should also be considered – this increases awareness of perception, develops imagination and abstract thinking, hence the limitation of the principle of visibility so rare in pedagogical practices of teaching physical culture. In physical education lessons, a student, according to P. F. Lesgaft, should, building the trajectory of his movements, choosing ways to get the desired result and calculating his strength, be able to practically apply the information obtained in the course of geometry and physics, i.e. his actions should be based not only on common sense, but also on theoretical knowledge. In this way, the relationship between theoretical and practical is achieved, since the student verifies the results of his own reasoning with the physical movement of his body. Running plays a special role in this: "In graceful long–term running and in choosing the form that best suits this goal, the degree of physical development of the person and the ability to control his movements are accurately and correctly reflected; if the latter condition is really consciously and independently fulfilled, then we can say - and by our actions" ^{[17, p. 373]}.

6. Other principles. The concretization and clarification of the principles considered are the principle of aestheticization, according to which running activities contribute to achieving and maintaining the beauty of the human body. In this regard, we note the judgments of A. D. Butovsky that the exercises recommended by him should lead "to the development of appropriate correctness and beautiful agility of running" ^{[3, p. 104]}. The aesthetic criterion is also used by him in explaining the conditions for the correctness of running, including elasticity, rhythmic accuracy and the easiest production of movements. The scientist concludes that "running under such conditions will certainly be a beautiful run, since the beauty of movement lies precisely in its freedom and the expedient correctness of techniques" ^{[3, p. 105]}. P. F. Lesgaft also writes about the development of graceful movements through running exercises, arguing about "beauty as an ideal of the ancient school" ^{[18, p. 339]}. Night running with burning torches practiced in Ancient Greece was characterized as an aesthetic phenomenon by P. V. Tikhanovich, A. G. Berglind, P. F. Lesgaft and V. E. Ignatiev.

Running games, especially "party games", to which P. F. Lesgaft, E. A. Pokrovsky and A. D. Butovsky paid great attention, implemented the principle of collective education and upbringing of children. The principle of continuity, consistency and systematicity of the pedagogical process runs through all the methods of teaching running to great Russian teachers. For example, P. F. Lesgaft distinguished three "departments" (levels) of physical education: elementary, secondary and senior, while at the higher stage the exercises of the lower level are partially used. At the first level, students learn how to properly perform "elementary" movements – walking, running and throwing, as well as their slightly complicated types, consisting in a gradual increase in the number of movements and their speed. The secondary department aims to teach students to strenuous and prolonged activities through the most economical implementation of simple movements and their appropriate choice. Exercises are performed here with significantly (but within reasonable limits) increasing tension and duration. For this purpose, running with weights (using weights, sticks and batons), fast ("loose") and long running, as well as obstacle running, running on socks (to form stability), running in different shoes (shoes, ankle boots, boots) and running on different types of soil (hard, soft, loosened). Senior-level classes consist in mastering spatial relationships and in forming the ability to optimally distribute one's physical activity over time. Running exercises are used here, developing the eye, introducing the properties of various bodies (for example, the resistance of surfaces used for running), as well as contributing to the differentiation of sensations generated by actions performed at different speeds [See: 12].

Thus, the great Russian teachers of the second half of the XIX – early XX century P. V. Tikhanovich, A. G. Berglind, P. F. Lesgaft, E. A. Pokrovsky, A.D. Butovsky, V. E. Ignatiev and V. G. Ukhov give us a theoretical justification and vivid examples of practical achievement of the most important educational goals expressed in the principles of pedagogy, with the help of running and various running exercises. It should be noted that we are far from absolutizing running practices and do not consider running to be the best activity for everyone and an equivalent substitute for other types of physical training. Having asked for support from the works of outstanding Russian researchers of physical education, we would like to draw the attention of the pedagogical community to the huge educational and educational potential of running, which is clearly insufficiently used in modern Russian education, not only as a publicly accessible and basic physical exercise for many types of physical culture and sports activity, but also as a means of developing a person with a centuries-old history, aspiring to kalokagatia. That is why we join the judgment of Peter Frantsevich Lesgaft that "it is necessary to pay as much attention as possible to the exercise in running and apply it to the widest extent" ^{[17, p. 373]}.

 The conducted research allowed us to come to the following conclusions:

1. The great Russian teachers of the second half of the XIX – early XX century P. V. Tikhanovich, A. G. Berglind, P. F. Lesgaft, E. A. Pokrovsky, A.D. Butovsky, V. E. Ignatiev and V. G. Ukhov offer a theoretical justification and give vivid examples of practical achievement of the most important educational goals with the help of running exercises. Their common merit is the formation of a comprehensive system of physical education with active and diverse use of running practices, which reflects the best forms and methods of personality development of Western culture, as well as Russian folk elements of physical improvement, primarily games.

2. A common feature of the theoretical heritage of the above-mentioned physical culture researchers is their interest in the pedagogical practices of Ancient Greece, where gymnastic exercises, including various forms of running, were used as the basis for the child's development. Russian teachers in ancient gymnastics were most attracted by its humanistic content associated with the desire for kalokagathy – the holistic development of a person, his achievement of a high level and harmony of physical and spiritual qualities.

3. As a means of teaching and upbringing, running exercises make it possible to achieve the most important educational goals, which are expressed in the principles of pedagogy. Thus, compliance with the principle of naturalness ensures the natural ("instinctive") nature of running, which explains its health benefits, accessibility and recreativeness. Focusing on this principle involves taking into account the age, height and build of the student when assigning running tasks, as well as weather conditions and running surface. Based on this principle, P. F. Lesgaft, E. A. Pokrovsky and A.D. Butovsky contrasted running with modern European gymnastics (especially "hardware") and sports competitions as unnatural and unnecessarily difficult for children.

4. In accordance with the principle of cultural conformity, running should be used in physical education classes, especially in the lower grades, in a playful way, which corresponds to the traditions of the Russian ethnic group, allowing to form national character traits and rely on the centuries-old experience of folk pedagogy.

5. The principle of unity of knowledge and skills, consciousness and behavior makes it possible to ensure, with the help of running exercises, the connection of bodily and intellectual development within the framework of physical education. So, exercise allows you to form a muscular sense of space; long running, obstacle running and running with weights ? persistence of actions; high-speed running teaches you to concentrated activity; running with a metronome develops a sense of time.

6. The principle of the connection of the pedagogical process with life and practice, implemented during running training, develops efficiency based on the skill of long-term volitional tension and "firmness of mind".  Running games teach a child to obey the rules, to be self-contained, disciplined, to shun vanity, self-will and all unbridledness (E. A. Pokrovsky).  P. V. Tikhanovich, V. G. Ukhov, P. F. Lesgaft and A. D. Butovsky emphasize the special importance of running exercises for military training.

7. The principle of scientific character is manifested in the fact that, having for the most part academic degrees and titles, P. V. Tikhanovich, A. G. Berglind, P. F. Lesgaft, E. A. Pokrovsky, A.D. Butovsky, V. E. Ignatiev and V. G. Ukhov relied on the modern level of natural sciences in choosing the forms, methods and content of physical education and social sciences and humanities. As for introducing students to scientific activities, for example, P. F. Lesgaft believed that when performing running tasks, a student should be able to apply the information obtained in the course of geometry and physics.

8. Also, motor exercises, according to outstanding Russian teachers, should obey the principle of aestheticization, according to which running classes contribute to achieving and maintaining the beauty of the human body. Running games, especially "party games", implemented the principle of collective education and upbringing of children. The principle of continuity, consistency and systematicity of the pedagogical process runs through all methods of teaching running, assuming a stepwise, age-appropriate and skill-developed nature of introducing students to running locomotion.

9. Thus, outstanding Russian researchers of physical culture have revealed the enormous educational potential of running, which is also significant for modern pedagogical practices.