Analysis of the Subjects of Chinese Carved Jade from the Collection of the Museum of Anthropology and Ethnography. Peter the Great (Kunstkamera) of the Russian Academy of Sciences

Van Tsi Postgraduate student, Department of Art History, St. Petersburg State Art and Industrial Academy named after A.L. Stiglitz 191187, Russia, Sankt-Peterburg avtonomnaya oblast', g. Saint Petersburg, Solyanoy per., 13. 386944349@qq.com Other publications by this author

The art of jade carving has its roots in the distant past. Jade was discovered by people in ancient times: they studied the mineral, found ways to use it, made attempts to comprehend and cognize it, and then endowed it with ethical, legal and religious meaning. With the advent of the art of jade carving, this stone became a symbol of tradition, power and divinity, as well as an important component of the social culture of primitive society ^[3].

The art of jade carving originated in China in the Neolithic era and has passed a long way of development to the present. This kind of art developed along with culture, and also certainly met the requirements of different eras. The plots embodied on jade products are an important basis for the evaluation and attribution of works of art ^[1]. In the Russian-language scientific literature, jade culture is characterized precisely as material: the properties of the mineral that formed the basis of its symbolic meanings are described, museum exhibits, book illustrations are characterized, the importance of jade products in the Chinese household culture is emphasized ^[11]. Our article is devoted to the study of the subjects of works of Chinese jade carving art in the collection of the Museum of Anthropology and Ethnography. Peter the Great (Kunstkamera) of the Russian Academy of Sciences (hereinafter - the Kunstkamera).

The methodology of the article is determined by the specifics of the studied material, namely: the subjects of Chinese jade carving, which were subjected to an art historical descriptive analysis, comparative analysis of various methods of design and correlation with the peculiarities of culture, as well as with the symbolism of that period. Semantics and art studies of Chinese jade products are of interest not only to Chinese scientists (Bai Feng ^[1], Wang Guolian ^[2], Cao Xiufeng ^[12]), but also to Russian (B.B. Vinogrodsky ^[4], S.A. Komissarov ^[7], S. I. Galanin ^[5], etc.). A practical problem arises: there is not enough research on the art historical analysis of jade in China, since much attention is paid to its cultural value and archaeological history. However, due to various objective reasons, studies of Chinese jade in Russia are not systematic and in-depth ^[14].

The purpose of this study is to study the museum expositions of the Kunstkamera, where works of art from Chinese jade are presented. The realization of this goal required solving a number of tasks. The objectives of the article are determined by the main purpose of scientific research: first of all, to investigate and analyze the plots of Chinese jade art objects presented in the expositions of the Kunstkamera. Secondly, to clarify the content of the plots made on jade and related to mythology and religion, as well as to identify the influence of jade culture of different historical periods and different social strata on artistic expression.

In the 90s of the XIX century, a turn towards the East was outlined in Russian foreign policy and diplomacy, as well as in intellectual and spiritual life. One of the trends in public thought based on the idea of the cultural and historical community of Russia and the East and the reorientation of Russian politics to Asia was the so-called "Orientalism", the main exponent of which was the confidant of Nicholas II, the editor of the St. Petersburg Vedomosti, Prince Esper Esperovich Ukhtomsky ^[12]. In 1901, E.E. Ukhtomsky collected a lot of jade products in the north of China, which are now included in the collection of the Kunstkamera. Most of the works are decorative, while they cover different subjects: images of characters, animals, plants, as well as religious subjects, the execution of which is distinguished by grace and a high level of skill.

The exhibition of the Kunstkamera dedicated to China presents more than 20 objects of jade carving art. These beautiful works were brought to Russia during the forties and fifties of the twentieth century. During the research, information was received from the curator of the collection (P.V. Rud) about the absence of dating on jade exhibits due to the lack of appropriate specialists. No one has conducted an art history study of the collections. This aroused scientific interest in this problem and determined the relevance of this study.

Renu (literally "people and things") is a genre of Chinese painting that includes portraits in the interior, images on historical, mythological and literary subjects, scenes of palace life, and so on ^[6]. Carvings of characters, as a rule, are based on traditional plots, most of which are mythological. This is due to the aesthetics, hobbies, habits of ancient people and the peculiarities of traditional folk art. The images of the characters represent extreme complexity in the art of jade carving: they cover a significant substantial layer and at the same time have a clear vital energy.

Fig.1. MAE 3245-21

Exhibit number MAE 3245-21 represents a sculptural image of the god of longevity, Shou-sin. The product is an image of a long-bearded old man with a bulging hyperbolized forehead, with a staff in one hand and a peach in the other. There are blessed clouds under his feet, and the image of a spotted deer is engraved on one side of his body. The elder's facial features are realistic, the expression is joyful, the patterns on the clothes are light and flowing. In general, the sculpture is distinguished by its originality of execution and vivid artistic expressiveness. This is a typical piece of jade carving art in the form of a character appearing in the image of Shou-sin (the elder of the Longevity star) in the traditional folk culture of China. This is a sculptural image of the god of longevity from Chinese mythology. Often this character appears in the same composition with deer, cranes or peaches of immortality, designed to complement the image.  

Around the third century BC, the image of Shou-sin began to appear in books, and under the Ming (1368-1644) and Qing (1644-1911), plots with this hero were often performed on jade. During these periods, the image and the technique of transmitting the Show on the products became more and more complex, which marked the era of the highest flowering of the jade culture ^[15].

Fig.2. G214

During the Ming period, engraving techniques were rougher than under the Qing, and many details were often overlooked. As an example, we will give a jade product of the Ming Dynasty from the collection of the Forbidden City Museum – "The Jade lying Deer and the God of Longevity" (G214). The image of the character is distinguished by the simplicity and conciseness of the composition, the desire to convey the inner state (spirit). During the Qing Dynasty, following the development of the craft, stone processing became more thorough. Special attention is paid to the polishing of jade, the expression of its softness, luster, saturation. If we compare the above exhibit with the sculptural image of the god of longevity Show-sin from the collection of the Kunstkammer under the number MAE 3245-21, then we can note the great detail of the latter in terms of the transfer of beard, patterns on clothes and other elements. Careful polishing of the stone made it possible to achieve brilliance, realism and high artistic expressiveness. This corresponds to the technological characteristics of the Qing era. Thus, this jade product was made during the Qing. The most common among the plant plots on jade products is a pine tree – a symbol of longevity. Thus, ancient people turned to various subjects and expressive forms to express their own hopes and aspirations.

Fig.3. MAE 3245-2

Fig.4. MAE 3245-5

The above illustrations show a decorative ornament (MAE 3245-2) and a vase (MAE 3245) with the image of a pine tree.

If we compare the images of pine in traditional Chinese Guohua painting with the peculiarities of the transfer of this tree on jade, we can see that the carved images are more geometric and dynamic. The tall, straight trunks and branches characteristic of gohua appear curved and changeable on jade, filled with a sense of movement.

Obviously, this technique serves to enhance the spatial perspective. The needle-like leaves of the tree, numerous and thin, on jade products are often grouped into geometric shapes (oval, fan-shaped). Overlays and layering of forms enhance the three-dimensionality of two-dimensional space. Such images of pine trees on stones are laconic and voluminous, demonstrate the possibilities of their rich artistic expression, as well as the outstanding visual abilities of ancient artists.

Fig.5. MAE 3245-1

In addition to images of mythological heroes and plants, images of animals are used as a special visual language. Many decorations depict birds, insects, reptiles, skillfully captured details skillfully convey images of animals ^[8]. For example, the exhibit number MAE 3245-1 is a sculptural image of a reclining buffalo. This rounded sculpture is made in the form of a buffalo with its head slightly raised, eyes wide open, mouth slightly open. The whole figure of the animal expresses serenity. The buffalo's horns are directed backwards and pressed against the head, and the tail is twisted under the animal's body. There are laconic engraved lines on the buffalo's head and tail. The master carefully worked out the four legs of the buffalo, giving them a geometric shape. The peculiarity of this sculpture is that it is a three-dimensional sculpture that can be viewed from different points of view. In the "Book of Mountains and Seas" (Shan Hai Jing), it is recorded that the Yan di Emperor had the body of a buffalo. This emperor led his tribe to fish, roam and hunt along the Yellow River, and then moved to the middle and lower reaches of the Yellow River. He tasted different herbs with his tongue, recognized grain crops with his eyes, demolished mountains and overturned seas due to the power of the buffalo, created agricultural lands, thus making a significant contribution to the development and progress of the Chinese nation ^[13]. That is why, among all the images of animals, the buffalo has become a symbol of stability and diligence, it has also become considered an animal capable of bringing good luck and eradicating evil.

The subjects of the art of jade carving are rich and diverse, they cover many elements, as a result of which each work is filled with a special symbolic meaning. Buddhist subjects are also characteristic of this art. Buddhism occupies a unique place in the history of Asia. No other movement, religion or historical event can compare in terms of impact with Buddhism ^[9]. People liked to create sculptural images of Buddha, Guanyin Bodhisattva and others out of jade, to express the essence of Buddhism through the softness, smoothness, pure colors of jade. Jade is one of the seven treasures of Buddhism, which is considered an intermediary between people, deities and Buddhas ^[10].

Fig.3. MAE 3245-3

The jade bowl numbered MAE-3245-3 is decorated with a pattern in the form of eight jewels of Buddhism, combining various religious attributes. Eight religious elements are engraved on one object: a shell, a dharma circle (wheel), a precious umbrella, a canopy, a lotus, a jade vase, a golden fish, an endless knot, in the image of which a new artistic expression is manifested. The shell embodies the voice of the Buddha; the circle of dharmas symbolizes the transmission of Buddhism from generation to generation, as well as the continuity of life; the precious umbrella means higher powers; the canopy is an ancient Indian military banner associated with the elimination of delusions and suffering, giving the opportunity to achieve enlightenment; the lotus is the embodiment of holiness and purity; the jade vase symbolizes the completion of worship and achievement of success; the golden fish, as a rule, is depicted in pairs, which means eternal life and rebirth, figuratively expresses free adherents of Buddhism, who abandoned everything mundane and went beyond time boundaries; the infinite knot originally symbolized love, and also represented wisdom and enlightenment ^[2]. The combination of these eight elements is closely related to Buddhism and symbolizes good luck and happiness.

In the middle of this image in the form of eight jewels is an ornament of the hieroglyphs "?" show (longevity). In Chinese science, there is an idea that "ten thousand hieroglyphs are connected in?". During the reign of the Kangxi Emperor (1661-1722) of the Qing Dynasty, the use of the hieroglyphic ornament "?" of the show reaches its peak. The images of the eight jewels originate in Tibetan Buddhism and flourish under the Ming and Qing. During the Ming Dynasty, these images were most often created on porcelain. During the Qing Dynasty, members of the imperial family professed Tibetan Buddhism, so such images were made in significant numbers on jade products. By analyzing the exhibit number MAE-3245-3, it can be seen that the plot is an important basis for the artistic analysis of the art of jade carving, and ornaments are significant symbols of the jade era.

Thus, these new jade materials testify to the close exchange between China and Russia before and after the 20th century, about the interest of Russian researchers in studying Chinese jade; about the connection with mythology and religion of the subjects that were performed on jade; about the reflection in the artistic images of jade culture of different historical periods and the representation of different social strata.

The study also revealed that the plots are associated with the development of human thinking, understanding of natural phenomena, awareness of the changing seasons, as well as the emergence of animism and totemic culture ^[14]. The cultural value of jade products that have been developed for several millennia, as well as their special significance and unique content, embodied through ancient traditional techniques, provided the art of jade carving and its amazing artistic styles with centuries-old transmission from generation to generation.