The Role of the Cat in the Art and Culture of Japan

Belova Dar'ya Nikolaevna PhD in Philosophy Associate Professor at Moscow State Institute (University) of International Relations of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Russian Federation 119454, Russia, Moskovskaya oblast', g. Moscow, ul. Vernadskogo, 76, kab. 4105 darinda2006@yandex.ru Other publications by this author

Willow earrings look so much like dirty kittens, But they are also flowers! Kobayashi Issa

It's okay, let your kawaii essence shine.                   

The author is unknown

Japanese folklore is strongly influenced by the two main religions of Japan – Shintoism and Buddhism. Japanese mythology is a complex system of beliefs, where not only living things – plants and animals – are spiritualized, but also non-living things - mountains, reservoirs, etc. The Shinto pantheon boasts an innumerable variety of kami – deities or spirits. 

Japanese art as a unique phenomenon is based on two key components – national art and mythology. The works of A.N. Meshcharekov, A.E. Gluskina, L.M. Ermakova, E.N. Afanasyeva, A.R. Sadokova, Yanigita Kunio, Isimoda Sho, Obayashi Tare, Miyata Noboru, Komatsu Kazuhiko are devoted to the issues of mythology and its diversity. The works of E.L. Katasonova, A.I. Denisova, E.S. Sycheva, G. Borggrin, Yuko Hasegawa, Inuhiko Emota, Hiroki Azuma, Nittono Hiroshi made a huge contribution to the study of issues of modern mass art and its mythological orientation.    

The Japanese mentality is characterized by a number of features – "the Buddhist concepts of the unity of the individual and the universal and the Shinto understanding of the omnipotence of the surrounding world, especially in the mystical interpretation of both, merged with the Taoist ideal of living in the bosom of nature with the aspiration for the supernatural characteristic of Taoists" ^{[11, p. 71]}. In Japan, there has long been a popular belief that things or living beings who have lived too long show magical powers. There are many old stories explaining this theory regarding foxes, tanuki (raccoon-shaped werewolf dog), snakes, etc. However, cats seem to be unique creatures with countless magical abilities, perhaps because they are not indigenous to Japan. While Japanese society developed along with foxes and tanuki, cats possessed a mysterious aura because of their origin, since they were imported from a distant world unknown to the Japanese. Add to this the natural nature of cats, their ability to stretch and shrink to seemingly unnatural sizes, noiseless gait, the ability to jump high and land deftly, eyes glowing in the dark and a pupil changing shape^[1], a measured "murmur" coming from inside, all this is an ideal recipe for creating an image of a magical animal. The first known appearance of a supernatural cat in Japan occurred in the XII century. "Japanese cats, with or without a tail, are not very popular characters, since these animals and a poisonous snake were the only ones who did not shed tears when the Buddha died. Apparently, Japanese cats are cursed and, for the most part, left to themselves, they are usually engaged in supernatural tricks" ^{[12, p.48]}.

Historical chronicles say that a domestic cat first came to Japan from India via China in 538 AD and was used to protect sacred Buddhist scrolls from damage caused by mice. Emperor Uda (867-931) kept a diary where he described in detail the adventures of his black cat, mentioning that the animal was imported from China in 884. The first known official cat name in Japan is Miobu no Otodo, which can be translated as the head of the inner chambers, cats wore red collars with pendants and bells, had a special position at court, they were looked after by ladies-in-waiting.

The oldest Japanese Toba Sojo scroll of 1053 depicts three cats with long tails playing with frogs, foxes and rabbits. The inhabitants of Kyoto had cats with ordinary tails, known as Chinese short-tailed. After the Second World War, various breeds were brought to the country, including Siamese and American shorthair. The most famous and popular cat breed in Japan is the bobtail. The breed dates back to the VI century of the Asuka period (538-710). People released Japanese bobtails into the streets to hunt rodents that threaten the silkworm population. The Japanese bobtail is an invaluable asset of Japanese culture, a favorite animal of the imperial family for several centuries.

Knowing about the cat islands – Aoshima and Tashiro, the Hello Kitty brand, Buddhist temples^[2] dedicated to cats and cat cafes, you might think that Japan is a nation fanatical about cats. As mysterious and mystical creatures, cats are represented in Japanese art in a very diverse way. On February 22, the Japanese calendar marks a special holiday dedicated to cats – "Nyan Nyan Nyan Day", i.e. – "Meow, meow, meow". In fact, back in the XI century in the novel "The Tale of Genji" the cat was one of the main catalysts of the plot. Japan not only loves, but is also afraid of cats. The country has a long, often terrifying history of folklore involving monstrous supernatural cats. The religious and mythological system of Japan is deep and diverse - from bizarre magical werewolves (bakeneko) to terrifying demonic corpse eaters (kasia). 

The main Japanese myths, as is generally recognized today, are based on Kojiki ("Records of the Deeds of antiquity", XIV century.), Nihon seki ("Japanese Chronicle", VIII century.) and some additional texts. Kojiki is the oldest recognized book of myths, legends and history of Japan. Shintoshu (XIV century.) explains the origin of Japanese deities, comprehending them from a Buddhist point of view, while Hotsuma Tsutae (XVIII century) is a complex epic poem that examines the history of traditional kami from a different non-traditional angle. In all these texts, the main function inherent in mythology is expressed – the explanation of the origin of certain customs and rituals, their sanctioning and sacralization.

There are well–known illustrated albums by the artist of the Edo period Toriyama Sakien (1712-1788) "Night Parade of 100 demons" consisting of four books, which present a collection of yokai - strange and supernatural creatures from Japanese folklore and legends. "The terrible in Japanese art increases to almost unbearable, and the concept of the procession of ghosts existing among Japanese artists is so creepy and sinister that I would not like to meet them in the clear light of day, and even less so at night" ^{[12, p. 21]}. The book depicts many ghosts taken from classical Japanese and Chinese literary works, folk lore from all over Japan. Sekien also depicted creatively reinterpreted ghosts in a humorous way, adding some images from himself that later inspired such famous ukiyo-e masters as Kitagawa Utamaro and Utagawa Toyoharu. 

There are several varieties of mystical cats, let's start with bakeneko (beech. shape–shifting) - a werewolf cat gets its magical abilities after living for about 12 or 13 years, reaching a large size and weight (3.75 kg), or a long tail, so in ancient times the Japanese usually cut the tails of cats short in order to avoid turning them into demons. After becoming a bakeneko, cats grow to the size of an adult, begin to walk on their hind legs, can learn human language and create fireballs. Fire also appears at the tips of their tails, which can lead to unintentional arson of houses. There are many stories about bakeneko who like to turn into people, wear clothes and dance all night long, they can be mischievous, but not cruel, they like to drink lamp oil. But some bakeneko are really dangerous, gaining supernatural power, they kill and eat their owners, and then take their appearance, completely replacing the former owner ^[3]. Bakeneko can even revive the recently deceased by jumping over a corpse.

Nekomata means a cat with a forked tail, it is often confused with bakeneko^[4]. "Tailedness is the main sign of werewolves in Japan. When Japanese artists depicted a werewolf in human form and specifically wanted to indicate that we were not looking at a real homo sapiens, they painted a tail on him" ^{[10, p. 416]}. It was first mentioned by Yoshida Kenko (1283-1350) in literary notes entitled "Notes at Leisure" (1330-1332). Yoshida stated that the nekomata live deep in the mountains and feed on human flesh. Fujiwara Sadaie (1162-1241) wrote about the existence of nekomata in a scroll called "Records of the Clear Moon".

Nekomata are born from ordinary cats or long-lived cats and are very dangerous to humans. Probably one of the most famous stories related to Nekomata is "The Fire of Nekomata", included in the collection "Mysterious Stories of Japan" (1708). The legend tells of a samurai whose house was invaded by a ghost, from which it was not possible to get rid of. The problem was solved only when the family's beloved cat was killed, which was considered a very bad thing, but it turned out that she had two tails. 

Some nekomata run away from people and hide deep in the mountains, becoming man-eating monsters. One legend of the XII century tells about a huge two-tailed man-eating cat hiding in the territory of the present Nara Prefecture, the former capital of Japan, surrounded by mountains and forests. These cunning creatures used many tricks to lure people, imitating voices in danger, coming to their aid, died. Nekomata are able to turn into anyone by deceiving the victim. 

Massive, they looked more like two-tailed tigers than pet pampered pets. Some suggest that the legends about the necomats arose because of an escaped tiger with rabies, which may have been brought from China by circus performers. There are stories about these two-tailed creatures possessing necromancy and pursuing their former masters, who mistreated them, sending them the ghosts of deceased relatives. Like bakeneko, they can summon fireballs, but unlike the latter, they use this ability to deliberately ignite large fires in villages and cities, killing many people. They're probably doing it out of revenge. One famous ukiyo-e Sawaki Sushi from the series "The Illustrated Book of a Hundred Demons" (1737) depicts nekomata playing the shamisen (a musical instrument traditionally made from cat skin) and singing a sad song about the plight of his species. 

The most terrible kind of bakeneko is kasia. Engulfed by fire, they steal the corpses of sinners who have not yet been laid to rest from cemeteries and take them to hell, sometimes leaving the bodies to eat or resurrect as zombies. Kasia means "burning chariot", because in the original Buddhist texts it was about a flaming chariot transporting sinners to hell. However, at some point this legend got mixed up with the legend of bakeneko, perhaps because cats, especially wild ones, eat the corpses of other animals. The history of kasi still remains part of the culture of funeral services. In Japan, after the death of a person, it is customary to arrange a wake, while cats are taken out of the room.

The mysterious halo, grace, cunning and lust that surrounded cats eventually became associated with the image of courtesans who provided services in the red light districts of the Edo period – they were called bakeneko-yuzo. "Their necessary attribute was shamisen, and they themselves began to be called kitties" ^{[8, p. 39]}.

One popular story about bakeneko-yuzo begins with the fact that a werewolf kills a beautiful geisha, the prince's lover, and turns into his victim. Every night bakeneko-yuzo came to the prince and quietly drank his blood while he was sleeping. He was getting weaker and weaker and no doctor could give him the right diagnosis. The guards could not protect the prince, because every night they suddenly fell asleep. And only one young soldier found a way to stay awake. Sensing the approach of sleep, the soldier stabbed himself with a knife and every time he started to fall asleep, he turned the blade and was alert again. Finally, a beautiful geisha appeared, but when she noticed the soldier, she flashed her yellow eyes and immediately left, the same thing happened several nights. And the soldier realized that the geisha with yellow eyes was to blame for the prince's illness and planned to kill her. Together with the guards, he came to the geisha's chambers and tried to stab her with a knife. In the blink of an eye, bakeneko-yuzo returned to her cat form and disappeared into the night. The next day, the prince was informed of what had happened, he ordered to find and kill bakeneko-yuzo, who had taken the life of his beloved, which was soon fulfilled.

Not all otherworldly cats are cruel, dangerous or indifferent to people. Maneki-neko^[5] is a cat of happiness, so lucky that even his figurines bring good luck and financial well–being. Statues of maneki-neko can be found at the entrance to many enterprises in Tokyo. In Gotoku-ji, people buy happy cat figurines, make a wish or pray over them, and then leave them in the temple, creating a huge collection of these figurines.

There are several legends about the origin of maneki-neko. In the early 1600s, the Kotoku-in Buddhist Temple (Kanagawa Prefecture) was in disrepair, running out of money. One day, the daimyo of samurai Li Naotaka, after hunting with his falcons, passed by the temple and saw the abbot's favorite cat peeking out of the gate, mewing and waving its paw, inviting him to come in. When they were drinking tea with the abbot, it began to rain heavily, the wind broke trees, lightning flashed and struck the ground. Li Naotaka was so pleased that the cat saved him that he donated a large sum of money to the temple. After the cat died, out of gratitude, a large statue of her with a waving paw was installed in the temple, and the temple was renamed from Kotoku-in to Gotoku-ji in honor of the posthumous Buddhist name Lee Naotaki.

Another story of the origin of the maneki-neko symbol is the story of the courtesan Usugumo, who loved cats, especially her tortoiseshell cat. She always took him with her wherever she went. One fateful day, when Usugumo was trying to take a bath, the cat wrapped itself around her legs, accidentally caught her kimono and meowed loudly. The owner of the house where Usugumo was staying thought that the cat had attacked the girl, pulled out a sword and beheaded him. But even after his death, the cat Usugumo was so faithful to her that his severed head bit a poisonous snake lurking in the bathtub and about which he tried to warn the hostess. Usugumo was inconsolable because of the loss of her pet, so she ordered his statue. It was carved with the highest skill from the best wood. Over time, the statue became so popular that many people wanted to buy it, so maneki-neko appeared. 

Given the high status of cats in Japanese culture and how cute they are, it is not surprising how often they appear in Japanese literature and not only as a background or a twist to tie an interesting plot. Some feline characters really occupy the central place of the main narrator. The original satirical novel about Japanese cats was written more than a century ago by Natsume Soseki (1867-1916). In the novel "Your Humble Servant the Cat" (1905-1906), the story is told on behalf of a domestic cat, very educated and critical of people. The result was a classic witty satire on the intelligentsia of the Meiji era.

Hiro Arikawa (1972) drew inspiration from the classic novel by N. Soseki when she wrote The Chronicles of a Wandering Cat. The narrator is a sarcastic and insightful cat Nana, describing his adventures experienced during a joint trip with the owner Satoru throughout Japan.

Even if cats are not the main characters of the narrative, they play an important role in the development of the storyline, prompting the reader with signs of impending danger or hinting at the cause of a dark mystery. Just look at any book written by Haruki Murakami (1949) and you will see that cats occupy far from the last place with him – "Kafka on the Beach", "Hunting Sheep", "Chronicles of a Clockwork Bird", etc. "According to traditional implicit aesthetics, art has a symbolic character, it only leads a person to comprehend the depths of inexpressible transcendence" ^{[11, p. 79]}.

Cats depicting famous Kabuki actors became fashionable in the middle of the XIX century. There was a play called "Cat's Commotion". The government banned the display of photos of actors and courtesans, considering them harmful to public morality, but artists have always found a way to circumvent the rules. They turned to cat images to express their veiled attitude towards those in power and celebrities. We must not forget that Western art has always differed from Eastern art "... if Western artists strive for a realistic – "as it is" – representation of reality, then for Eastern masters it is important to display the inner essence of people and things, and therefore their paintings are conditional" ^{[11, p. 31]}.

In the history of Japanese art, from ukiyo-e prints to modern watercolors, there has never been a more significant muse than a cat that intersects with female images.

An engraving by one of the most respected and talented ukiyo-e artists in the country, Kitagawa Utamaro (1753-1806), shows two young women who have just come out of the bath and a charming kitten. More than 200 years ago, the artist was fond of one of his favorite artistic motifs – beautiful women and mischievous kittens ("Woman and Cat" (1791)). Lightness and playfulness are the perfect embodiment of Utamaro's love for female and feline images. "Overflow in the aesthetic context proper is, firstly, the multilevel nature of a work of art, implying, in addition to external, visible forms, also a deep, not clearly expressed, but nevertheless present spiritual level associated with the Taoist–Buddhist and Confucian basis of the worldview" ^{[11, p. 113]}.

In the "cat art", the most significant figure is Utagawa Kuniyoshi (1797-1861) – the master perfectly depicted violence and horrors, but was obsessed with cats, which he also often acted in a demonic role ^[6] – "Demon Cat" (circa 1850). In his house there was a Buddhist altar for deceased cats, having received posthumous Buddhist names for his pets, he kept their tablets on the altar. His workshop was overflowing with them, visitors often found him at work surrounded by his favorite cats, so it's not surprising that he combined these two interests. Kuniyoshi depicted anthropomorphic cats dressed and behaving like ordinary people, among them were kabuki actors, parodies of famous personalities, dancing and having fun residents of Edo^[7] ("Cats composing music" (1841)). The style of caricatures goes back to the genre of toba-e (XVIII century.) – emphasizing exaggerated body proportions, grotesque poses, sometimes vulgar, but always funny situations and is the precursor of the future manga.

Kawanabe Kesai (1831-1889) was born into a samurai family, becoming one of Japan's first political cartoonists. His ironic style is clearly visible in the engraving "Cat and Mouse", where the cat quite ordinarily holds a mouse in its paw by the tail (both characters are quite well-fed). The artist's ability to perfectly reflect relationships through the pose and movements of figures in his works cemented for Kesai the reputation of one of the most individualistic artists of his time ("Woman and Cat" (1790)).

The famous painting by Tsukioka Yoshitoshi (1839-1892) from the series "Thirty-two Views on Customs and Manners" (1885) is called "Tired" and depicts the tender love of a woman and her cat. Yoshitoshi is considered one of the greatest ukiyo-e artists, because he skillfully used simple lines and bright colors. Not all woodcuts depicting cats fit into one category of visual style. The series "The War of Cats and Mice" (1859) shows a dramatic story about long-standing natural enemies entering into a decisive battle similar to a human one. "Cats Attracted by a Delicious Smell" and "Mice Eating while the Cat is Sleeping" depict cats and mice in traditional samurai armor participating in a humorous rivalry reminiscent of Tom and Jerry's relationship. "Humor has permeated all Japanese art and literature for many centuries, and perhaps not only because of the peculiarities of the national character of the Japanese or the folk origins of many literary and pictorial subjects. Most likely, humor, both for writers and artists, and for their readers and viewers, remained the only way to express their emotions in conditions of strict state rule with a watchful regulation of life ..." ^{[7, p. 68]}.

Kobayashi Kiyochika (1847-1915) has a slightly different view of cats, his work "Cat and Flashlight" (1877) shows a black and white kitty playing with a paper flashlight. Kobayashi usually used a deeper level of color than many of his contemporary printers. The use of darker shades gives his works a gloomy feeling of the night, which is difficult to accurately formulate, but distinguishes him from other creators of ukiyo-e prints.

Hiroaki Takahashi (1871-1945) was a Tokyo artist who created vivid works: natural landscapes, landscapes of the Edo era and, of course, portraits of cats, the most famous work is "Tama, the Cat" (1926). Takahashi's work played an important role in shaping more modern ukiyo-e trends. He used shading and mixing colors to create a perfectly balanced evening and night sky, in which he had no equal.

 Known for his numerous paintings of cats, Hishida Sunse (1874-1911), influenced the creation of the Nihonga style of painting during the Meiji period. Although Hishida is known for many things, including morotai, i.e. "vague style", a method of combining traditional Japanese line drawing with Western impressionist. The artist became famous for his paintings with cats, in particular his "Black Cat" (1910) was declared an important cultural asset, and in 1979 the Japanese government included this image in a series of commemorative postage stamps.

Asakura Fumio (1883-1964), who is sometimes called the father of modern Japanese sculpture, was interested in cats. In the Asakuri Plastic Museum in Yanaka, you can see many of his cat sculptures, as well as in Tokyo, where his house has been preserved, which is used to showcase his works. When he was a student, he couldn't pay models, so he wandered the streets of Ueno, drawing cats. As soon as he managed to build a large house and studio, he got a lot of cats and even hired a student to take care of them. Asakura was fascinated by the plasticity of cats and the wild instincts that they managed to preserve despite a long life side by side with a human. He planned to complete 100 works of art dedicated to cats before the start of the Olympic Games in Tokyo in 1964 and hold an exhibition, but unfortunately passed away before the work was completed.

Tsuguharu Fujita (1886-1968) is one of the most famous Japanese artists who lived and worked in the West, where he met Picasso, Modigliani, Matisse, Leger and Cocteau. Fujita achieved great success in Europe, was awarded the Belgian Order of Leopold and the Legion of Honor by the French government.

 Fujita's success attracted many models to him, as a result of which beautiful women were immortalized by him in engravings and paintings, but the real muses of the artist were cats. In many of his paintings, whether self-portraits or nudes, there are cats. In Japan, cats are considered a symbol of good luck, but the artist especially appreciated them for the quality of being both wild and domestic at the same time, their grace and smoothness of movements. "The most striking thing about the cat symbol is its ambivalence. As for the image of a snake, the image of a cat is characterized by the whole range of meanings – from mercy and kindness to malice and hostility" ^{[13, p. 62]}. In 1930, twenty drawings of Fujita cats were published in The Book of Cats, which is among the 500 most expensive rare books that have ever been sold. The inclusion of Japanese-style cats in Fujita's paintings opened up a new perspective on European modernism and Art Deco, distinguishing him from other artists who worked in Paris in the 20th century. His pale-skinned women possessed feline grace and grace, and he endowed cats with feminine eyes and smiles.  However, the image of a cat was not the only Japanese element that the artist brought to Paris. He wanted to combine Eastern and Western art with his own painting methods, using oil paint and ink, Japanese brushes and black contours in self-portraits and nudes, monochrome. He created a special kind of glaze made of chalk, magnesium silicate and linseed oil, which gave his paintings a glossy and pearly shimmer, bringing a touch of magic and refined aesthetics to the images.

A more modern view of traditional nihong painting was carried out by Togyu Okumura (1889-1990), one of the most famous watercolorists in Japan. He had an original style of drawing, with a dense colorful layer he created both deeper and delicate color tones, painted light and delicate landscapes. In the charming "Day Off" work, a somewhat disheveled cat is idling, keeping a preoccupied look on its muzzle. With this work, Okumura remarkably demonstrated the ability to weave the classical aesthetics of nihong into a fairly modern image.

In the 1950s, when Japan was recovering from World War II, the nation became more and more connected with the Western world, artists and stylistic influences of the West began to penetrate into all spheres of Japanese life. The work of Masaharu Aoyama (1893-1969) is an excellent example of the clash of Western and Eastern ideals in art. The engraving "Kitten and Thread" (circa 1950) resembles classical British painting in the manner of execution, but the neutral background and the emerging texture of wood indicate the specifics of Japanese engraving.

A completely different approach to Japanese painting dates back to Tomoo Inagaki (1902-1980), an artist who joined the Sosaku-hang movement, which was mainly focused on the ideology of pure self-expression, when artists themselves collected their prints. Ukiyo-e was traditionally made by a small team, which included carvers, printers, publishers, but sosaku-hanga brought it back to basics. Having eliminated traditional motifs, Tomoo focused all the viewer's attention on emotionality, creating an incredibly beautiful print in its boldness and simplicity. He is best known for his stylized modernist, abstract Cubist prints with cats, the first of which date back to 1951. Tomoo's early works included landscapes, including urban and still lifes. After the war, the artist created many prints and participated in international exhibitions in Paris, Tokyo and Lugano. Tomoo's love of geometric forms manifested itself in the work "Cat Makeup" (1962), resembling a stained glass window, in the engraving the cat is bifurcated – two heads superimposed on each other depict the movements of a washing cat; in the engraving "A Pair of Cats" (1958) – geometric black and gray color blocks create static harmony between the two animals.

Tadanori Yokoo (1936) is an interdisciplinary artist, one of the brightest artists in the country. Throughout his career, he has worked as a polygraphist, graphic designer, and more recently as an artist, becoming the founder of Japanese psychedelics. His original works in the style of pop art gathered a lot of fans around him, including outside Japan. In 1972, his first solo exhibition was held at the Museum of Modern Art in New York. The "Hino Moto no Keko" image, created in 1997, is a silkscreen that mixes classic Japanese motifs, such as maneki-neko (waving cat) and Inari torii gate, with various artistic styles from photorealism to vintage ukiyo-e style images.

The modern Japanese artist Tokuhiro Kawai (1971) uses his skill to create surreal images, referring to the Italian artists of the High Renaissance. But instead of biblical figures, kings and donors, Kawai fills his paintings with cherubs, children and cats (the series "Royal Cats" (2004)). The traditional classical approach in painting is aimed at depicting heroes, saints and the divine with their symbolic attributes illustrating glorious feats or miracles. Kawai is trying to revive this practice by rethinking it in a modern context, adding originality and humor. Inspired by the themes of magic and fantasy, the artist immerses the imagination of observers in the world of fantasy and fairy tales, thanks to his bright and soaring characters. Each of his paintings is filled with an infinite number of details, creating a unique story with the help of canvas and oil paints. The art of Kawai, using its extraordinary visual language, fills ancient legends and myths with new content, moving away from modern Japanese art, but remaining committed to traditional pictorial iconography.

One of the main features of the history of Japanese art is that even the most practical things used in everyday life have received their artistic interpretation. A striking example of such attention to detail is netsuke^[8], where the image of cats is extremely diverse. Today, Japanese netsuke are still studied and admired by artists, historians and collectors all over the world. Since there was no strict division into high and mass art in Japan, netsuke as a type of miniature sculpture was very popular among different strata of society. Small ornaments are peculiar key rings that serve as an addition to clothing – kimonos, usually carved from boxwood or ivory, have a hole passing through them from top to bottom in order to pass the cord. In the beginning, netsuke were simple objects that were used to secure inro, but later they became independent works of art and a kind of amulets. Netsuke embody various symbols: zodiac animals, mystical creatures from Japanese folklore, in particular, cats, monks, actors of the Noh theater, masks and much more. The love and skill, the high detail that was invested in the creation of these miniature sculptures testifies to the attentiveness, striving for perfection of the national decorative and applied art of the Japanese.

We cannot talk about cats in Japan without mentioning kawaii – the so-called culture of cuteness or mimicry. "A Kawaii may be a child, a girl an animal, but not an adult man or even a young man or a woman who is older than the speaker… But always the speaker looks down at the object. Another nuance is also important: in the Japanese language, there is a word with the same root as kawaii, kawaiso – "causing pity", which adds an additional emotional shade to the emotional perception of the definition of kawaii" ^{[7, p. 194]}. And there is nothing cuter than cartoon cats – "Hello Kitty and her friends", "Doraemon", an earless robot cat or Zizi from the "Kiki Delivery Service", cats are the main component of kawaii in Japan. Everyone likes affectionate pets and their pleasant purring, especially relaxing people living in megacities and being under constant stress. Despite the fact that Japan is considered one of the countries with the largest number of cat ownership in the world, some Japanese cannot keep pets in their own apartment not only because of the small size of the living space, but also because of allergies. This explains the rapid growth in the number of cat cafes across the country, the fashion for which has penetrated both European and American culture, and more recently in Russia. Cat cafes give many people who love cats the opportunity to enjoy their communication for a modest fee.

Hello Kitty is a brand that appeared in Japan in 1974, is still very popular, especially in Asian countries. Some of the most famous holidays dedicated to the face of the brand – an anthropomorphic white kitty in a cartoon style, are held in Taiwan, where admiration for the icon of pop culture confuses even its inventor, the Sanrio company. This character has become a symbol of Japanese kawaii culture all over the world. As a result of its longevity and popularity, Screen Rant named Hello Kitty the second most profitable media franchise of all time in 2019, second only to Pok?mon. According to Screen Rant, having become Sanrio's biggest asset, the Hello Kitty franchise has earned more than $80 billion over its 47-year life, over the years the company has created 400 cute cartoon characters.

In the beginning, Hello Kitty products were intended for children, but as popularity grew, the range expanded with new products for teenagers and adults of both sexes, although it is still mainly designed for a female audience "... the spirit of infantilism has penetrated so deeply into Japanese culture that sometimes it even seems that previously reasonable and rational Japanese are not without we plunged headlong into this happy and for many nostalgic world" ^{[7, p. 183]}. In the product line, you can find anything from stationery and plush toys to suitcases and toasters. According to the Sanrio company, everyone's favorite character is not a cat at all, but a little girl Kitty White – a round-faced baby with black eyes, a yellow nose, no mouth and a red bow on her left ear, has pointed ears, mustache and tail. According to her "biography", she was born in the suburbs of London, where she lives with her parents and twin sister Mimmi. Among her hobbies are baking cookies, playing the piano and, most importantly, making friends. The circle of playmates includes a rabbit, a bear, a raccoon and a pair of monkeys. 

Actions such as anthropomorphizing animals, dressing them in human clothes, or even dressing children in adult clothes are a way to emphasize the inferior position of a pet or child, as well as to strengthen our sense of superiority. From this point of view, attractiveness is a kind of cultural bait, soothing and helping to escape from the reality of the world, obstacles, the struggle for a place in the sun and problems. Since Japan is a key global translator of "cute" culture thanks to the media, it has turned a local trend into an international one, kitschy into a desirable, senseless infantilism into a desire for eternal youth.

Japanese girls and adult women are happy to buy pencils, clothes, blankets, themed dishes with the image of a white kitty with a button nose, a very large head and a pretty face. Some specially fly on planes with the Hello Kitty logo, stay at the Hello Kitty mini-hotel, where all rooms are decorated with images of their favorite heroine from baths to pastel linen and dine in restaurants decorated in the same style. Some women prefer to give birth in a clinic decorated with branded cats, believing that such an environment calms during childbirth.

Over time, everything changes and the culture of kawaii is no exception, it also evolves, falling under various Western influences. So Japanese singer, blogger and model Kyari Pamyu Pamyu burst into the culture of kawaii in 2011 with an unusual clip for the song "PonPonPon". Only on YouTube her clip was watched 180 million times. A bizarre mixture of colorful and slightly crazy images in the form of flying eyeballs, dinosaurs and skulls has made a sharp turn in the "cute" culture. The unique style and image of the singer was influenced by such stars of the first magnitude as Lady Gaga, Katy Perry, Gwen Stefani. Before Kyari kawaii was mainly associated with a lovely white cat or cartoon characters with big eyes and innocent facial expressions, then Kyari transformed the culture of "cute" by mixing an avant-garde form of pop music with a slight touch of psychedelics. 

Kyari represents a new kind of J-Pop, Japanese popular music that has had a following in Asia for decades, but has failed to attract the attention of the rest of the world. The texts can be irritatingly catchy and often have little meaning, and the music is very specific, but these shortcomings are the essence of the kawaii culture, which sharply contrasts with the more widespread international perception of Japan – conformism, orientation to the national mentality, striving for perfection. "Cute hints" indicate youth, vulnerability, harmlessness and the need for love and protection. Instead of behaving sexually and provocatively, emphasizing their maturity and independence, Japanese youth in every way demonstrates their immaturity and inability to fulfill social responsibilities. The clash of the individualistic culture of the West and the collective thinking of the East could not but lead to a crisis of values in society.

Modern attractiveness is multifaceted – visual images mainly use large round eyes, a combination of bright colors and pastels, as well as anthropomorphic forms. The Japanese "cute" style is aimed at a sentimental journey into an idealized childhood. Adult life, associated with authority, rights and responsibilities of the individual, is still guided by the Confucian model, in which maturity is usually seen as the ability to cooperate in a group, make compromises, fulfill obligations to parents, employers, etc. This ideology is another reason for the rebellion of Japanese youth culture, which has grown into a rebellion in adulthood.

Thus, Japanese mythology is reflected in painting, where the most important aesthetic categories are used: sabi, wabi, shibui, yugen, the fulfillment of which is the desire for the beauty of a changing world, the inner power of aesthetic perfection, the knowledge of mystical essences, modest simplicity and the needs of the soul, which is expressed in the favorite subjects of Japanese artists in the images of women and cats.

One by one

The petals of the terry sakura are falling off,

Fluttering in the wind.

                            Masaoka Shiki

The fallen leaf caught

And he pressed it carefully with his paw

Funny kitten…

                             Kobayashi Issa

The clan of mystical cats is variously represented in Japanese painting as a transcendent phenomenon associated with various transformations, especially into beautiful women, as well as monsters, demons, ghosts, i.e. creatures associated with the fear of the unknown. The study of yokai gives an opportunity to look into the soul of Japanese society, to understand the people and their culture. The fear of the unknown never changes at all times, which makes it possible to study mythological creatures, culture and mentality of people of a particular era, traditional and modern types of arts connecting many generations.

The image of a woman approaches the image of a cat with erotic semantics, motives of darkness, evil, combining the features of a trickster and the authenticity of comfort, warmth at home. The connection of cats and women in the traditional concealment of facial expressions. Cute cats and women are not emotional, which is typical of Japanese painting. The mask of comeliness has one expression. Eternal charm is a feature of the Japanese character, its philosophy. The philosophical meaning permeates all Japanese art, which is vividly represented in an ancient engraving where a woman cuts off the hem of a kimono so as not to wake up a cat^[9], which corresponds to the main content of the Japanese mentality – respect for someone else's life, a living being.

For a while brought

A cat, but also love

I followed her…

                   Michio Nakahara

Japanese mythology, reflected in painting, retains its national characteristics, but is influenced by modern progress and the development of society. Mass culture, globalization, and the development of technology contribute to various changes in art. The Japanese believe that cute, cute is an independent aesthetic phenomenon reflected in kawaii as "a phenomenon as a myth of modern Japan. The veil of kawaii envelops Japanese society" (3, p. 36).

Hello Kitty symbolizes some of the main Japanese virtues: pleasantness, harmony, attractiveness, a sense of aesthetic tenderness, nature, abundance and avoidance of aggression. The reasons for the unique popularity of the image lie both in her femininity and in the absence of facial expression, it is not a definite character, therefore it can be associated with any mood, which is a reference to ancient Japanese customs in which a woman had to strictly adhere to a complex, hierarchically structured etiquette. Behind the layered clothes to hide not only the outlines of your figure, but also behind the complex makeup of your face, and hence the emotions that we observe in Japanese painting when depicting women and cats, and this is transferred to the kawaii culture and forms an integral part of it. "A Japanese woman, whose every step was subject to severe discipline, nevertheless gave us a type of femininity, excellent in its comeliness and character, and the Japanese artist managed to capture the magic of her charm" ^{[12, p. 20]}. Another reason is that during periods of economic instability, a "cute" character from a psychological point of view helps people feel warmth and comfort.

Many in the country wanted their purely masculine culture to find a modern outlet for the female part of the audience, hence the new love for everything related to kawaii. "That is why a number of scientists interpret the aesthetics of kawaii as a kind of feminine challenge to the centuries-old social and political disenfranchisement and oppression in Japanese society" ^{[7, p. 208]}. "Cute" is also an important social component in cities, where many are desperately looking for stability and a sense of security, a buffer against an extremely harsh lifestyle in megacities. Japanese companies began to pay special attention creating your image in the style of kawaii. Japanese products are designed to be "cute", to appeal to women, because the purchasing power belongs to them. Even with regard to things that women do not buy on their own, for example, a car, they have the right to vote when making the final decision. In Japanese society, young people spend a lot of time at the computer, which leads to isolation, fuels loneliness and the desire to make friends. Buying "cute" goods, they want to be accepted in society, wearing "cute" mascots (mascots) avoids alienation and everyone can identify themselves with a particular group, thereby showing their friendliness and endearing to themselves. In addition, "... in folklore and fairy tales, the white cat is the liberator of the oppressed, the helper of poor and disadvantaged young people. They use her knowledge and energy to overcome the forces of darkness and become rich, strong and worthy of respect" ^{[13, p. 64]}.

People have always been afraid of what they did not understand, which caused anxiety, so they tried to bring it out of the subconscious area into the rational, giving the inexplicable names and endowing certain qualities, but in the Japanese mentality there is no clear line between good and evil, as is customary in Western Christian culture – "... good and evil are not always separated from each other, having a dual nature. Rather, Japanese spirits have the same nature as humans… And now, when society has become more mature and when interpersonal relationships have begun to play a very important role in our daily life, humanoid youkai and the ghosts of the dead have appeared on the scene" ^[6]. Modern man does not want to be afraid (but he can only pretend a little), he seeks to explain everything from a scientific point of view, to "secure" his fears by turning them into something he can control, into something cute - guro-kawaii^[10] ("disgusting-cute"), Kimo-kawaii ("scary-cute")^[11]. "Of course, things play a regulatory role in everyday life, they discharge a lot of neuroses, absorb a lot of tension and energy of grief; this is what gives them a "soul", this is what makes them "their own", but it also turns them into a decoration of a living mythology – an ideal decoration of neurotic balance" ^{[2, p. 33]}.

Traditional art forms such as the tea ceremony, ikebana and the classical kabuki theater have strict rules – their own ritual, which took many decades to develop. Therefore, such a rapid ascent of Kyari to world fame, her quirkiness and flaws challenge the traditional opinion about Japanese culture. 

^[1] According to the expanding and narrowing pupil of the cat, the Japanese were able to determine the time of day.

^[2] The custom of keeping cats on the temple grounds helps in their journey to nirvana, freeing the souls trapped in the body of animals.

^[3] Werewolf cats often take the female form of a spirit who wants revenge - nekomusume, whose image is especially popular in modern Japanese pop culture.

^[4] The sign of a werewolf cat is its color: tricolor cats can most likely turn out to be demons, and cats bring good luck; white means purity and purity; black with fangs, sharp ears, two tails can walk vertically on the wall and scare away evil spirits; red bring prosperity and wealth. Bakeneko go to the mountains on February 3-4, where their festival, the cat sabbath, takes place on the top of the Nekodake volcano, and people celebrate Setsubun – the separation of the seasons on this day.

^[5] With a raised paw, pointed red ears, coins and other accessories, maneki-neko has brought good luck and prosperity for centuries. The "Waving Cat" (XVII century) is well known all over the world – this figurine made of wood, clay, porcelain, ceramics is often decorated with gold, it can be found in many Asian stores. There are different figures for different types of luck, if you drive a car, protect yourself by purchasing a blue statuette; for those looking for love – pink; black – protection from evil; green – education and health; blue – intelligence; the famous gold brings prosperity and wealth; white promotes spiritual perfection; red protects against evil spirits, diseases; yellow protects the marriage union. The value of maneki-neko varies depending on which paw is raised: the right one attracts money and luck, the left one attracts friendship and partners. Other additions include a re – Japanese oval-shaped coin symbolizing wealth, as well as a bib or bell indicating the care of the owners to their pets. In Tokoname City, Aichi Prefecture, there is even a Manekineko-dori Street ("Street of Beckoning Cats") filled with many of these ceramic statues. Tokyo is home to the Gotoku-ji Buddhist Temple (1480) dedicated to maneki-neko or Imado Temple, which also offers its own version of the symbol.

^[6]There is a genre of Japanese art called yurei-dzu, which touches on all sorts of supernatural themes. Many paintings and woodcuts with ghosts, spirits and even demons fall under this style. Yurei-zu dates back to the Japanese Middle Ages, when paintings were created on scrolls. During the Edo period (1603-1867), more and more works of art with elements of the supernatural became commonplace. 

^[7] In the series of engravings of 1842 "Cat Faces" U. Kuniyoshi depicts famous actors from the seventh act of the popular Kabuki play "Tyusingura" in the form of cats. Those who were familiar with the actors could identify each figure by the clothes, manners and hairstyles of cats. The artist's ability to play up controversial topics speaks to the unique role of ukiyo-e in Japanese society. Some of the most famous works by U. Kuniyoshi are funny, playing cats – in the triptych "Fifty-three Tokaido Stations" (1850), each cat symbolizes a certain station on the road connecting Kyoto with Tokyo.

^[8] During the Edo period, women and men wore kimonos, with a wide obi belt tied over them. However, the kimono has no pockets, so they came up with the idea of attaching small inro boxes to clothes, where they could put money and personal belongings. Inro hung from a belt on a cord, which was fixed by netsuke.

^[9] A sleeping cat is a symbol of peace and tranquility in Japan.

^[10] This is a world of grotesque and violence seeping through the "traditional" style of kawaii. Recently, the concept of guro-kawaii has become increasingly popular in Japan. Singer Kyari Pamyu Pamyu is a manifestation of guro-kawaii. Osaka–based artist Mori Chuck is one of guro-kawaii's predecessors, his cruel but outwardly cute bear Glumi, released in 2000, has long, sharp claws that tear a little boy, his companion, to shreds. Such characters are a kind of reaction to the "cloying" of cute Hello Kitty–type images inhabiting Japanese pop culture.

^[11]The symbol of kimo-kawaii is kobitodukans, which look like shriveled mushrooms and vegetables, copying the facial expressions of elderly people in shock. Gudetama is another depressive hero kimo-kawaii is an egg yolk – a funny and rounded character with small arms and legs, his feature is depression, lethargy and sadness.